Polity Population List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Populations.
GET /api/sc/polity-populations/?format=api&ordering=-id
{ "count": 467, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/sc/polity-populations/?format=api&ordering=-id&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 740, "year_from": 1678, "year_to": 1720, "description": "In 1678, a census in Russia recorded approximately 950,000 households. Population estimates based on this census range between 10.5 and 11.5 million. These estimates vary depending on the assumed average number of individuals per household and the proportion of the population that may have been uncounted in the census.§REF§N. A. Gorskai︠a︡, Istoricheskai︠a︡ Demografii︠a︡ Rossii Ėpokhi Feodalizma: Itogi i Problemy Izuchenii︠a︡ (Moskva: Nauka, 1994).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/93M4X65C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 93M4X65C</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n1720 : includes new Baltic & Polish territories§REF§Brian Catchpole, A Map History of Russia (London: Heinemann Educational, 1974).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FLZC48SZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FLZC48SZ</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2023-12-28T17:18:30.972415Z", "modified_date": "2023-12-28T17:19:36.316267Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_population", "polity_population_from": 11000000, "polity_population_to": 15500000, "polity": { "id": 600, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_1", "start_year": 1614, "end_year": 1775, "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty I", "new_name": "ru_romanov_dyn_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 16, "name": "Eastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 739, "year_from": 1897, "year_to": 1913, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2023-12-02T15:49:41.619178Z", "modified_date": "2023-12-02T15:50:13.782534Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_population", "polity_population_from": 125640021, "polity_population_to": 170100000, "polity": { "id": 571, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_2", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1917, "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty II", "new_name": "ru_romanov_dyn_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-05-30T13:02:18.914134Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 16, "name": "Eastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 51, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 738, "year_from": 1800, "year_to": 1860, "description": "The first and only comprehensive census of the Russian Empire was conducted in 1897.§REF§“Демоскоп Weekly - Приложение. Справочник Статистических Показателей.,” accessed December 2.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8582PW6D\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8582PW6D</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\nThe census recorded demographic data such as social class, native language, religion, and profession, providing insights into the Empire's composition.\r\n\r\n\r\nEstimates for the years: 1800, 1860, 1913§REF§M. E. Falkus, The Industrialisation of Russia, 1700–1914 (London: Macmillan Education UK, 1972).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGJVXPBV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZGJVXPBV</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2023-12-02T15:47:43.528962Z", "modified_date": "2023-12-02T15:50:22.328127Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_population", "polity_population_from": 35500000, "polity_population_to": 74100000, "polity": { "id": 571, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_2", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1917, "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty II", "new_name": "ru_romanov_dyn_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-05-30T13:02:18.914134Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 16, "name": "Eastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 51, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 737, "year_from": 1860, "year_to": 1897, "description": "The first and only comprehensive census of the Russian Empire was conducted in 1897.§REF§“Демоскоп Weekly - Приложение. Справочник Статистических Показателей.,” accessed December 2.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8582PW6D\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8582PW6D</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\nThe census recorded demographic data such as social class, native language, religion, and profession, providing insights into the Empire's composition.\r\n\r\n\r\nEstimates for the years: 1800, 1860, 1913§REF§M. E. Falkus, The Industrialisation of Russia, 1700–1914 (London: Macmillan Education UK, 1972).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGJVXPBV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZGJVXPBV</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2023-12-02T15:46:08.980627Z", "modified_date": "2023-12-02T15:48:43.279568Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_population", "polity_population_from": 74100000, "polity_population_to": 125640021, "polity": { "id": 571, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_2", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1917, "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty II", "new_name": "ru_romanov_dyn_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-05-30T13:02:18.914134Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 16, "name": "Eastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 51, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 736, "year_from": 1989, "year_to": null, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2023-11-22T18:49:36.202708Z", "modified_date": "2023-11-22T18:59:55.899301Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_population", "polity_population_from": 262084654, "polity_population_to": 286730817, "polity": { "id": 601, "name": "ru_soviet_union", "start_year": 1918, "end_year": 1991, "long_name": "Soviet Union", "new_name": "ru_soviet_union", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-12-12T15:11:33.853424Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 16, "name": "Eastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 735, "year_from": 1970, "year_to": 1989, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2023-11-22T18:46:44.118296Z", "modified_date": "2023-11-22T18:46:44.118311Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_population", "polity_population_from": 241720134, "polity_population_to": 262084654, "polity": { "id": 601, "name": "ru_soviet_union", "start_year": 1918, "end_year": 1991, "long_name": "Soviet Union", "new_name": "ru_soviet_union", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-12-12T15:11:33.853424Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 16, "name": "Eastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 734, "year_from": 1970, "year_to": 1979, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2023-11-22T18:45:29.163248Z", "modified_date": "2023-11-22T18:45:29.163261Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_population", "polity_population_from": 208826650, "polity_population_to": 241720134, "polity": { "id": 601, "name": "ru_soviet_union", "start_year": 1918, "end_year": 1991, "long_name": "Soviet Union", "new_name": "ru_soviet_union", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-12-12T15:11:33.853424Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 16, "name": "Eastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 733, "year_from": 1959, "year_to": 1970, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2023-11-22T18:32:58.442591Z", "modified_date": "2023-11-22T18:32:58.442602Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_population", "polity_population_from": 170557093, "polity_population_to": 208826650, "polity": { "id": 601, "name": "ru_soviet_union", "start_year": 1918, "end_year": 1991, "long_name": "Soviet Union", "new_name": "ru_soviet_union", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-12-12T15:11:33.853424Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 16, "name": "Eastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 732, "year_from": 1939, "year_to": 1959, "description": "The 1926 Soviet Union census, a comprehensive demographic survey, provided crucial insights into the population size and composition of the newly formed Soviet state. It captured detailed data on various aspects including age, gender, ethnicity, occupation, and literacy rates, painting a multifaceted picture of the society at that time. This data was pivotal in shaping subsequent economic and social policies within the Soviet Union.§REF§Всесоюзная перепись населения 17 декабря 1926 г (Издание ЦСУ Союза ССР, 1928).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T9JQGM8H\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: T9JQGM8H</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\nIn twelve years the urban population more than doubled, reaching 56.1 million (33 percent of the total population) by 1939, a rate of urbanization historically without precedent. In terms of the economic structure of the working class, the share of workers and employees (along with their family members) reached half of the total population by 1939, up from roughly one-sixth in 1926. The virtually complete collectivization of farming was also indicated by census figures.\r\n\r\nWhile the 1939 Soviet census has not been widely utilized, it nevertheless provided a framework of organizational experience and added to a popular understanding of statistical methods. These developments helped especially in conducting the numerous emergency survey counts that were necessary during World War II.\r\n\r\nTwenty years passed before another comprehensive census took place on Soviet soil, on January 15, 1959. The date chosen at least allowed for comparisons by twenty-year intervals, and the published tables often included previously unreleased 1939 totals as well. However, the large territorial gains following World War II and the devastating effect that war losses had on the age and sex structure of the population made comparisons between census years quite difficult. Furthermore, unlike the Soviet censuses of 1920 and 1926, the 1959 questionnaire did not request information on place of birth, making difficult even a crude estimate of migration. The organization and administration of the population count in 1959 marked a standardization in Soviet census-taking procedures; most of the methods instituted in 1959 remained virtually unchanged for the succeeding Soviet censuses of 1970 and 1979.§REF§Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses (Cornell University Press, 1986), accessed November 22, 2023, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt1g69xfv.\r\n<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EPDK4KRV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EPDK4KRV</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\nThe 1989 Soviet census was the last one that took place in the Soviet Union. In 1989, the Soviet Union ranked as the third most populous in the world, above the United States.§REF§“Демоскоп Weekly - Приложение. Справочник Статистических Показателей.,” accessed November 22, 2023, https://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/pril.php.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MZMZFQN2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MZMZFQN2</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2023-11-22T18:26:17.994586Z", "modified_date": "2023-12-04T17:19:58.383917Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_population", "polity_population_from": 147027915, "polity_population_to": 170557093, "polity": { "id": 601, "name": "ru_soviet_union", "start_year": 1918, "end_year": 1991, "long_name": "Soviet Union", "new_name": "ru_soviet_union", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-12-12T15:11:33.853424Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 16, "name": "Eastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 730, "year_from": 1493, "year_to": 1591, "description": "'''♠ Luxury spices, incense and dyes ♣ suspected unknown♥ It is unclear which, if any, spices were considered luxurious. ''' “However, the Portuguese were not quite so successful as they had hoped in exploiting Africa's resources. Certainly, the Songhai in any case managed to monopolise the Saharan caravan trade which brought rock salt and luxury goods like fine cloth, glassware, sugar, and horses to the Sudan region in exchange for gold, ivory, spices, kola nuts, hides, and slaves. Timbuktu, with a population of around 100,000 in the mid-15th century, continued to thrive as a trade 'port' and as a centre of learning into the 16th and 17th centuries when the city boasted many mosques and 150-180 Koranic schools.” §REF§ Cartwright, M., 2018. Songhai Empire. World History Encyclopedia. Available at: https://www.worldhistory.org/Songhai_Empire/ [Accessed November 2023]. §REF§ “Niger society was an ordered and cultivated society, at least at the level of the aristocracy. They liked ample garments and babush, the easy life of the home, highly spiced food and above all good company. This led to a certain moral laxity, as indicated by the numerous courtesans and the debauchery among the princely aristocracy.” §REF§ Cissoko, S.M., 1984. The Shongay from the 12th to the 16th Century, in General history of Africa, IV: Africa from the twelfth to the sixteenth century, UNESCO General History of Africa. Ed. D.T. Niane. Pg 207. §REF§\r\n:'''♠ place of production of luxury spices, incense and dyes ♣ ♥'''\r\n:'''♠ consumption of luxury spices, incense and dyes by ruler ♣ inferred present♥ ''' “Niger society was an ordered and cultivated society, at least at the level of the aristocracy. They liked ample garments and babush, the easy life of the home, highly spiced food and above all good company. This led to a certain moral laxity, as indicated by the numerous courtesans and the debauchery among the princely aristocracy.” §REF§ Cissoko, S.M., 1984. The Shongay from the 12th to the 16th Century, in General history of Africa, IV: Africa from the twelfth to the sixteenth century, UNESCO General History of Africa. Ed. D.T. Niane. Pg 207. §REF§\r\n:'''♠ consumption of luxury spices, incense and dyes by elite ♣ inferred absent♥ ''' “Niger society was an ordered and cultivated society, at least at the level of the aristocracy. They liked ample garments and babush, the easy life of the home, highly spiced food and above all good company. This led to a certain moral laxity, as indicated by the numerous courtesans and the debauchery among the princely aristocracy.” §REF§ Cissoko, S.M., 1984. The Shongay from the 12th to the 16th Century, in General history of Africa, IV: Africa from the twelfth to the sixteenth century, UNESCO General History of Africa. Ed. D.T. Niane. Pg 207. §REF§\r\n:'''♠ consumption of luxury spices, incense and dyes by common people ♣ ♥ '''", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2023-11-14T17:26:20.998529Z", "modified_date": "2023-11-14T17:26:20.998542Z", "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_population", "polity_population_from": null, "polity_population_to": null, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "MlSong2", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591, "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "new_name": "ml_songhai_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Third of the great West African empires, the Songhay Empire emerged from a small kingdom based in the Gao region, which was a tributary to the Mali Empire until it started to gain autonomy in the late 14th century CE. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 12) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ A Songhay leader named Sonyi Ali Beeri was responsible for transforming this polity into an expansionary empire from the late 15th century onwards. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 13) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ The heyday of the Songhay Empire was under the Askiya (or Askia) dynasty, 1493‒1591. These kings consolidated Songhay power by building on the legacy of their Malinke predecessors and took control of more territories, extending their reach over the Niger Inland Delta, westward to the Atlantic ocean, northward to the salt pans of Taghaza, and eastward to the Tuareg kingdom of Agadez. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 68) Roland Anthony Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 66) David C. Conrad. 2010. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ §REF§ (Diop 1987, 95) Cheikh Anta Diop. 1987. <i>Precolonial Black Africa</i>, translated by Harold Salemson. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. §REF§ However, the empire was brought to an abrupt end in the late 16th century: after a succession crisis which sparked a civil war, the Sultan of Morocco invaded in 1591. §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 17) David C. Conrad. 2010. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 196) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Unlike the preceding Ghana and Mali Empires, Songhay operated as a centralized unitary state. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 196) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The king was a revered figure but his authority was tempered by the precepts of Islam from the 11th century, and this religion became increasingly prevalent under the Askiya dynasty. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 196) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The imperial council coordinated the activities of the central government, which was divided into ministries including those of agriculture, finance, the army and the naval fleet. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 197) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The two major provinces, Kurmina in the west and Dendi in the southeast, were ruled by princes who were responsible for their own armies. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 199) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ Thriving trading towns like Jenné, Timbuktu, Teghazza and Walata enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy due to the power of guilds and local chiefs, but had to report to a superintendent, tax inspectors, customs officials and other state appointees. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 199) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ Vassal and tributary countries also bowed before the power of the Askiya when disputes arose. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 199) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ <br>The Songhay empire is associated with the establishment of high centres of learning in Jenné, Dia, Gao and Timbuktu. The latter in particular was famed for its university, holy men, doctors and teachers, who contributed to the spread of Islamic humanism among the urban elite in the region from the 15th century. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 208) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The rural Songhay continued to venerate a pantheon of divinities and local spirits until Islam penetrated the countryside via the peaceful incursions of traders and government-sponsored marabouts. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 207-08) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ <br>It is difficult to find substantiated population estimates for the Songhay Empire, but one scholar believes there could have been 70,000 people living in the city of Timbuktu by 1580 under Askiya Daoud. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 57) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. <i>Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle</i>. 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