Paper Currency List
A viewset for viewing and editing Paper Currencies.
GET /api/sc/paper-currencies/
{ "count": 378, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/sc/paper-currencies/?page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 355, "year_from": 1100, "year_to": 1750, "description": "The following information strictly applies to the period immediately preceding colonisation--however, given global trends in the history of currency, it seems very unlikely for paper currency to have existed in this region prior to the 18th century. \"Cowries and cotton bands were used as currency.\"§REF§(Englebert 2018: 15) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/52JWRCUI/collection.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-08-24T10:37:01.110197Z", "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Paper_currency", "paper_currency": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 620, "name": "bf_mossi_k_1", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1897, "long_name": "Mossi", "new_name": "bf_mossi_k_1", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 377, "year_from": 1615, "year_to": 1769, "description": "The first instance of paper currency in Russia was introduced during the reign of Peter the Great. The Assignation Ruble was the first paper currency of the Russian Empire, introduced in 1769.§REF§Pick, Albert. Standard Catalog of World Paper Money. 2: General Issues: 1368-1960 / George S. Cuhaj, Editor. Edited by George S. Cuhaj. 13. ed. Iola, Wisc: Krause, 2010.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4QMQVGF7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4QMQVGF7</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-01-21T19:16:50.911512Z", "modified_date": "2024-01-21T19:16:50.911523Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Paper_currency", "paper_currency": "absent", "polity": { "id": 600, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_1", "start_year": 1614, "end_year": 1775, "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty I", "new_name": "ru_romanov_dyn_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 16, "name": "Eastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 65, "year_from": 1700, "year_to": 1720, "description": " Initiative of Desmarets 1700s CE which failed then Law's System which crashed 1720 CE. §REF§(Briggs 1998, 151)§REF§§REF§(Ladurie 1991, 290)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "paper_currency", "paper_currency": "present", "polity": { "id": 461, "name": "FrBurbL", "start_year": 1660, "end_year": 1815, "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Bourbon", "new_name": "fr_bourbon_k_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The House of Bourbon (The Ancien Regime) ruled France from the death of the childless Late Valois king Henry III in 1589 CE to the re-convening of the Estates General during the French Revolution. The Late Bourbon period began as King Louis XIV consolidated monarchical power in 1661 CE and ended when King Louis XVI signed the National Assembly’s proposed constitution in 1789 CE. Nickname the “Sun King”, Louis XIV came into full power after the death of cardinal minister Mazarin in 1661 CE. The king was an avid patron of the arts, creating academies for dance, science, music, and architecture, supporting French writers, and expanding the Louvre. The palace of Versailles, then the largest building in Europe, was constructed by Louis XIV in the 1670s and 1680s. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 59) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ The king also nullified the Edict of Nantes that gave rights of worship to the Huguenot Protestants with 1685 CE Edict of Fontainebleau. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 60) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ <br>While the first two periods (1661-1672 CE and 1673-1688 CE) of Louis XIV’s reign were marked by prosperity and expansion, the third period (1689 to 1715 CE) of the Sun King’s reign ended in frustration. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 60-61) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ France was involved in a succession of wars between 1682 CE and 1712 CE (including the War of the League of Augsburg and the War of Spanish Succession) which united much of Europe against Louis XIV. Public debt also increased under the Sun King and France suffered from famine from 1693 to 1694 CE. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 63) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ Under Cardinal Fleury, the regent of the second Late Bourbon King Louis XV, France entered a sustained period of peace and economic expansion from 1726 CE to 1741 CE. In the 18th century, the Enlightenment began to dominate the public sphere, and became a catalyst for the French Revolution which overthrew King Louis XVI in 1789 CE. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 66-71) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ <br>The French Kingdom was expanded under Louis XIV. However, France lost most of its colonial territories in the Seven Years’ War under Louis XV, and gained only Lorraine (1766 CE) and Corsica (1768 CE). §REF§ (Haine 2000, 65) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ France covered 2.5 million square kilometers in 1700 CE but only between 700,000 to 1.54 million square meters in 1750-1789 CE. §REF§ (Chase-Dunn spreadsheet) §REF§ More research is necessary on colonial expansion and loss of territories in this period.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>King Louis XIV changed the relationship between the king and his government by ruling as his own prime minister. Under the rule of the Sun King, the Estates General and the Assembly of Notables did not meet, and the Assembly of the Clergy was tightly controlled. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 57) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ Louis XVI was forced to reconvene the Estates General as the National Assembly during the French Revolution. The National Assembly forced Louis XVI to sign a constitution which limited his right to rule. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 72) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ <br>The population of the French Kingdom was 21.8 million in 1685 CE and 28.5 million in 1789 CE. §REF§ (Ladurie 1991, 302) Ladurie, E L. 1991. The Ancien Regime. A History of France, 1610-1774. Blackwell Publishers, Oxford. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JEZFIU2N\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JEZFIU2N</a> §REF§ In the Late Bourbon period, the population of the bourgeoisie increased from 700,000 in 1700 CE to 2.3 million in 1789 CE. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 64) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 354, "year_from": 1716, "year_to": 1814, "description": "“The strongbox of the new bank was kept in the sacristy of the cathedral, and when in 1628 the clergy protested against keeping it so close to the relics of the saints it was shifted just a short distance away to a special chamber upstairs. Neither it nor its equivalent of the same name in Barcelona were supposed to do anything with the treasure other than keep it under lock and key, issuing the depositor with an albarà—a certificate of his holding. In time the albarans began to circulate as a kind of currency, transferring deposits from one citizen to another to whom he owed money. But this nascent paper currency was largely aborted in the seventeenth century, as the Taula began to spend more money than it had in reserve. The successive bankruptcies of 1614, 1634 and 1649 in Valencia led to the conversion of the promissory notes (the albarans) into non-redeemable bonds on the municipal treasury.”<ref>(Casey 2002: 70) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT</ref>", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": "2023-08-24T10:04:21.252720Z", "modified_date": "2023-08-24T10:04:21.252735Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Paper_currency", "paper_currency": "absent", "polity": { "id": 570, "name": "es_spanish_emp_2", "start_year": 1716, "end_year": 1814, "long_name": "Spanish Empire II", "new_name": "es_spanish_emp_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-08-23T12:08:55.435366Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 356, "year_from": 1751, "year_to": 1897, "description": " The following information strictly applies to the period immediately preceding colonisation--however, given global trends in the history of currency, it seems very unlikely for paper currency to have existed in this region prior to the 18th century. \"Cowries and cotton bands were used as currency.\"§REF§(Englebert 2018: 15) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/52JWRCUI/collection.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Paper_currency", "paper_currency": "absent", "polity": { "id": 620, "name": "bf_mossi_k_1", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1897, "long_name": "Mossi", "new_name": "bf_mossi_k_1", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 378, "year_from": 1769, "year_to": 1775, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-01-21T19:17:35.536272Z", "modified_date": "2024-01-21T19:17:35.536284Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Paper_currency", "paper_currency": "present", "polity": { "id": 600, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_1", "start_year": 1614, "end_year": 1775, "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty I", "new_name": "ru_romanov_dyn_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 16, "name": "Eastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 272, "year_from": 1782, "year_to": 1862, "description": " \"Machine-minted coins and printed paper money appeared in 1862, when the imported cowries were officially taken out of circulation.\" §REF§(Van Dongen, no publication year, p. 10)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "paper_currency", "paper_currency": "absent", "polity": { "id": 45, "name": "ThRattn", "start_year": 1782, "end_year": 1873, "long_name": "Rattanakosin", "new_name": "th_rattanakosin", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "After the destruction of the city of Ayutthaya by the Burmese in 1767, the Chao Phraya Basin was briefly ruled by Phaya Taksin, a charismatic warrior-king of obscure origins who chose Thonburi as his capital, near Bangkok, an old Chinese trading settlement. In 1782, what remained of the old Ayutthaya aristocracy staged a coup and put their leader on the throne. This leader took the name of Rama I Chakri and moved the capital to Bangkok, known at the time as Rattanakosin or Krungthep. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 27, 31) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. <i>A History of Thailand</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Under Rama I, the kingdom rapidly expanded to the south (where it extended its control to the Malay peninsula), the north (where Chiang Mai became a new tributary), and the east (taking control of Vientiane and much of Cambodia). §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 27-28) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. <i>A History of Thailand</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It could be said to have reached its peak between 1793 and 1810, when it found new stability, regained control over important Asian trade networks, and witnessed a literary florescence, with the translation of several classics from different Asian languages. §REF§ (Wyatt 1984, 154-55) David K. Wyatt. 1984. <i>Thailand: A Short History</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ Our 'ThRattn' polity spans the 89 years between 1782 and 1873, when Rama V began a comprehensive series of modernizing reforms. §REF§ (Wyatt 1984, 194) David K. Wyatt. 1984. <i>Thailand: A Short History</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Rattanakosin kingdom was ruled by the Thai aristocracy. The king was simply a <i>primus inter pares</i> ‒ indeed, some kings, such as Rama II and Rama IV, actually retreated into a ritual role and left the administration of the kingdom entirely to the nobility. Even during the reign of more active kings, such as Rama I and Rama III, the aristocracy still monopolized the key posts in the central administration. However, the king always led the country in spiritual matters: he was seen as a <i>bodhisattva</i>, a spiritually superior superhuman being tasked with preserving Buddhism and aiding his subjects in their ascent toward <i>nirvana</i>, for example through moral laws banning sinful pursuits. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 31-32) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. <i>A History of Thailand</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Evidence for the size of this polity's population before 1911, the year of the first census, is sparse and unreliable. However, a reasonable estimate would be that, following slow growth beginning in the 1780s, the population reached just below 5 million by the middle of the 19th century. §REF§ (Dixon 2002, xxxii) Chris Dixon. 1999. <i>The Thai Economy: Uneven Development and Internationalisation</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ It is not clear whether this estimate includes tributary states and cities.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 17, "name": "Cambodian Basin", "subregion": "Siam", "longitude": "103.866700000000", "latitude": "13.412500000000", "capital_city": "Angkor Wat", "nga_code": "KH", "fao_country": "Cambodia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 41, "name": "Mainland", "subregions_list": "Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 273, "year_from": 1862, "year_to": 1873, "description": " \"Machine-minted coins and printed paper money appeared in 1862, when the imported cowries were officially taken out of circulation.\" §REF§(Van Dongen, no publication year, p. 10)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "paper_currency", "paper_currency": "present", "polity": { "id": 45, "name": "ThRattn", "start_year": 1782, "end_year": 1873, "long_name": "Rattanakosin", "new_name": "th_rattanakosin", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "After the destruction of the city of Ayutthaya by the Burmese in 1767, the Chao Phraya Basin was briefly ruled by Phaya Taksin, a charismatic warrior-king of obscure origins who chose Thonburi as his capital, near Bangkok, an old Chinese trading settlement. In 1782, what remained of the old Ayutthaya aristocracy staged a coup and put their leader on the throne. This leader took the name of Rama I Chakri and moved the capital to Bangkok, known at the time as Rattanakosin or Krungthep. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 27, 31) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. <i>A History of Thailand</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Under Rama I, the kingdom rapidly expanded to the south (where it extended its control to the Malay peninsula), the north (where Chiang Mai became a new tributary), and the east (taking control of Vientiane and much of Cambodia). §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 27-28) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. <i>A History of Thailand</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It could be said to have reached its peak between 1793 and 1810, when it found new stability, regained control over important Asian trade networks, and witnessed a literary florescence, with the translation of several classics from different Asian languages. §REF§ (Wyatt 1984, 154-55) David K. Wyatt. 1984. <i>Thailand: A Short History</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ Our 'ThRattn' polity spans the 89 years between 1782 and 1873, when Rama V began a comprehensive series of modernizing reforms. §REF§ (Wyatt 1984, 194) David K. Wyatt. 1984. <i>Thailand: A Short History</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Rattanakosin kingdom was ruled by the Thai aristocracy. The king was simply a <i>primus inter pares</i> ‒ indeed, some kings, such as Rama II and Rama IV, actually retreated into a ritual role and left the administration of the kingdom entirely to the nobility. Even during the reign of more active kings, such as Rama I and Rama III, the aristocracy still monopolized the key posts in the central administration. However, the king always led the country in spiritual matters: he was seen as a <i>bodhisattva</i>, a spiritually superior superhuman being tasked with preserving Buddhism and aiding his subjects in their ascent toward <i>nirvana</i>, for example through moral laws banning sinful pursuits. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 31-32) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. <i>A History of Thailand</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Evidence for the size of this polity's population before 1911, the year of the first census, is sparse and unreliable. However, a reasonable estimate would be that, following slow growth beginning in the 1780s, the population reached just below 5 million by the middle of the 19th century. §REF§ (Dixon 2002, xxxii) Chris Dixon. 1999. <i>The Thai Economy: Uneven Development and Internationalisation</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ It is not clear whether this estimate includes tributary states and cities.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 17, "name": "Cambodian Basin", "subregion": "Siam", "longitude": "103.866700000000", "latitude": "13.412500000000", "capital_city": "Angkor Wat", "nga_code": "KH", "fao_country": "Cambodia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 41, "name": "Mainland", "subregions_list": "Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 367, "year_from": 1867, "year_to": 1918, "description": "“Gulden banknotes issued by the Bank were printed in German on one side, Hungarian (as Forints) on the other.”§REF§(Boyer 2022: 176, footnote) Boyer, John W. 2022. Austria, 1867–1955. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CG3P4KKD§REF§ “By 1918 tax and non-tax income covered less than 20% of current war expenditures. The war was financed in two main ways: war loans in the form of eight public bond drives covered 53%, and direct credits (with newly printed money) provided via the Austro-Hungarian National Bank and other bank consortia financed another 42% of war costs, imposing a huge burden of hyperinflation on the postwar economy.”§REF§(Boyer 2022: 536) Boyer, John W. 2022. Austria, 1867–1955. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CG3P4KKD§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-02-20T11:04:15.757613Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Paper_currency", "paper_currency": "present", "polity": { "id": 567, "name": "at_habsburg_2", "start_year": 1649, "end_year": 1918, "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II", "new_name": "at_habsburg_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ended the Thirty Years' War, the Habsburgs faced the task of consolidating their fragmented territories, this era was marked by a series of succession wars, reflecting the Habsburgs' quest for territorial expansion and dynastic security.§REF§Arndt, Der Dreißigjährige Krieg.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PULFEDKX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PULFEDKX</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\nThe beginning of the period saw the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession (1700-1714), a conflict over the vast inheritance of the Spanish Habsburgs. The war ended with the Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt, which, while ceding the Spanish throne to the Bourbon Philip of Anjou, granted the Austrian Habsburgs significant territories in Italy and the Netherlands, reshaping the European balance of power.§REF§Schnettger, Der Spanische Erbfolgekrieg.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HK6DTTSH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HK6DTTSH</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nIn mid-18th century the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) challenged Maria Theresa's right to her father's throne. Despite initial setbacks, including the loss of Silesia to Prussia, Maria Theresa confirmed her rule and laid the foundation for the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty.§REF§(Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Kriegsarchiv)<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WC966X6J\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WC966X6J</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Seven Years' War (1756-1763) further tested the Habsburg power, as Maria Theresa sought to reclaim Silesia and counter Prussia’s rise. This global conflict, stretching from the heart of Europe to distant colonies, ended without altering the Silesian status quo but significantly realigned international alliances, setting the stage for future confrontations.§REF§Danley and Speelman, The Seven Years’ War.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AE3M256H\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AE3M256H</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nAt the end of the 18th century, the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778-1779) once again pitted the Habsburgs against Prussia, this time over the strategic region of Bavaria on the question of succession to the Electorate of Bavaria after the extinction of the Bavarian branch of the House of Wittelsbach. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Teschen with only minor gains for the Habsburg monarchy.\r\n§REF§Michael Kotulla, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte: vom Alten Reich bis Weimar (1495 - 1934).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U84B9DNB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: U84B9DNB</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\nIn the 19th century, the Habsburg Empire faced the challenge of Napoleonic France which resulted in the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the establishment of the Austrian Empire in 1804, Francis II became Francis I, Emperor of Austria.§REF§“Germany - Prussia, Napoleon, Reunification | Britannica.”<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F52JWVA3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: F52JWVA3</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Congress of Vienna in 1815 which laid the foundation of the post Napoleonic order in central Europe. further redefined the Habsburg realm, securing its status as a great power.§REF§Heinz Duchhardt, Der Wiener Kongress: die Neugestaltung Europas 1814/15.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KQ7ZZYPE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KQ7ZZYPE</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe revolutionary period of 1848, with its calls for liberalization and nationalism, profoundly challenged the imperial status quo, revealing the deep-seated tensions within its multi-ethnic composition.§REF§Dowe, Haupt, and Langewiesche, Europa 1848.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZDEFI38W\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZDEFI38W</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nIn response to these internal upheavals and the growing nationalist movements, “the Ausgleich” of 1867 with Hungary marked a pivotal compromise. This agreement gave rise to the Dual Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (“k. u. k.-Monarchie).\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n“The Ausgleich (“compromise”) reached with Hungary in 1867 was a major concession for Franz Joseph, and it created the so-called dualist Austria-Hungary that existed until 1918… The arrangement was dualist because it was not federalist. Rather than parceling out the monarchy into a structure in which the Austro-German lands, the Czech lands, Galicia, and Hungary-Croatia would all have roughly equal weight, it was divided simply into two, the Hungarian half and the Austrian half. This latter was not really called “Austria” but rather “Cisleithania,” meaning “beyond the Leitha River,” which was the border between Austria and Hungary. The formal name of the Cisleithanian half was “the countries and realms represented in the Reichsrat,” which gives some indication of the insubstantial basis for common identity of those territories. The governmental link between these two halves was also minimal. Foreign and military policy belonged almost exclusively to Franz Joseph. He retained the power to appoint and dismiss ministers, who thus had only a partial responsibility to parliament, and he could reject laws passed by the Reichsrat. There was a joint financial ministry and tariff regime. But details such as Hungary’s share of the budget could be renegotiated every decade, which led to repeated political conflicts in the years ahead, so dualism’s division of powers was by no means entirely clear. Nearly everything else was separate. There were distinct parliaments for the Cisleithanian and Hungarian halves, and each half had its own administrative, legal, and school systems. The realm was designated as kaiserlich (“imperial”) for the Austrian Empire of Cisleithania and königlich (“royal”) for the Kingdom of Hungary. In practice, dualism meant that the Austro-Germans dominated the other peoples in their half, and the Hungarians the other peoples in theirs. In many ways, Hungary’s weight within the Dual Monarchy only grew after 1867, thanks to economic advances that in turn fed into greater assertiveness on the part of the Magyar elite… Ultimately, even the Austro-Germans and the Hungarians disliked dualism. The former resented Hungarians’ disproportionate weight in the monarchy, while the latter constantly pushed for more autonomy and resisted any changes that would reduce their weight. And virtually all the other national groups detested the arrangement because it unfairly excluded them.” §REF§Berger, Der Österreichisch-ungarische Ausgleich von 1867.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7SEQIFJ2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7SEQIFJ2</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n“By the summer of 1918 the Habsburg dynasty’s death knell was ringing… Karl presided impotently over the progressive hollowing out of the whole monarchical state until there was almost nothing left that he actually governed. At the end of October the nearly 400-year-old monarchy dissolved in a matter of weeks. Karl issued a proposal for federalization on 16 October, but he and his idea were already irrelevant by that point. Gyula Andrássy, the last foreign minister of Austria-Hungary, said that the implicit logic behind the final, futile moves taken by the leadership was that “so that no one can kill us, we’ll commit suicide.” The initiative was instead firmly in the hands of the various national groups. On 18 October Romanians in Hungary called for union with the Kingdom of Romania. On the 21st the Germans of the monarchy declared their right to self-determination. On the 28th the Czech National Council declared independence, and on the 30th the new Czechoslovakia was officially formed. On the 29th the Croatian parliament formally dissolved its connections to Austria and Hungary and pledged to join the new Yugoslav kingdom. On the 31st the Ruthenians in Galicia announced their secession. On 1 November the Hungarians proclaimed their ties to the monarchy ended, followed ten days later by Galicia joining the new Polish republic. As all this was happening, Karl was still working at his desk in Schönbrunn, but the palace was mostly empty. Only a few loyal servants remained, since even his bodyguards had left. Finally on 11 November Karl signed papers that he was “temporarily” giving up his powers. He never formally abdicated but went into exile, first in Switzerland. Karl twice tried to retake the throne in Hungary in 1921, but after these unsuccessful attempts he was removed by the British to Madeira, where he died in 1922.”§REF§“Das Ende der Monarchie,” Die Welt der Habsburger, accessed February 4, 2024, https://www.habsburger.net/de/kapitel/das-ende-der-monarchie.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G9K39WS5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G9K39WS5</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-03-12T09:42:59.315585Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 375, "year_from": 1923, "year_to": 1991, "description": "The origins of the Russian ruble as a designation of silver weight can be traced to the 13th century. In 1704 Tsar Peter I (the Great) introduced the first regular minting of the ruble in silver. During the 18th century it was debased, and, after the middle of the 19th century, the rapidly depreciating paper money predominated in Russia’s circulation. In 1897 a gold ruble was substituted for the silver one, marking the change to a gold standard. Early in World War I, gold coins disappeared from circulation, and notes became inconvertible. During the period of the Russian Revolution and civil war, an inflation of astronomical dimensions made the ruble virtually worthless. A reform carried out during 1922–23 reestablished an orderly monetary system. The chervonets was introduced as the standard unit and the basis of the state bank’s note issue; the chervonets ruble, corresponding to one-tenth of a chervonets, was made a unit of reckoning. The ruble remained a term of denomination for treasury notes and silver coins. In the post-World War II reform of 1947, the chervonets was abandoned as the monetary standard and the ruble restored.§REF§“Ruble | Russian Currency, Exchange Rate, History & Value Definition | Britannica Money.” Accessed November 26, 2023. https://www.britannica.com/money/ruble.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2HBX67H7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2HBX67H7</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2023-11-26T09:47:09.429350Z", "modified_date": "2023-11-26T09:47:09.429363Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Paper_currency", "paper_currency": "present", "polity": { "id": 601, "name": "ru_soviet_union", "start_year": 1918, "end_year": 1991, "long_name": "Soviet Union", "new_name": "ru_soviet_union", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-12-12T15:11:33.853424Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 16, "name": "Eastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }