Length Measurement System List
A viewset for viewing and editing Length Measurement Systems.
GET /api/sc/length-measurement-systems/
{ "count": 46, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/sc/length-measurement-systems/?page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 44, "year_from": 1867, "year_to": 1918, "description": "In 1871 the metric system was adopted and in 1876 it became compulsory. §REF§(Cardarelli 2003: 99) Cardarelli, François. 2003. Encyclopaedia of Scientific Units, Weights, and Measures: Their SI Equivalences and Origins. London; New York: Springer. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UWS9ZN34§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-02-20T11:08:19.128285Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Length_measurement_system", "length_measurement_system": "present", "polity": { "id": 567, "name": "at_habsburg_2", "start_year": 1649, "end_year": 1918, "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II", "new_name": "at_habsburg_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ended the Thirty Years' War, the Habsburgs faced the task of consolidating their fragmented territories, this era was marked by a series of succession wars, reflecting the Habsburgs' quest for territorial expansion and dynastic security.§REF§Arndt, Der Dreißigjährige Krieg.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PULFEDKX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PULFEDKX</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\nThe beginning of the period saw the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession (1700-1714), a conflict over the vast inheritance of the Spanish Habsburgs. The war ended with the Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt, which, while ceding the Spanish throne to the Bourbon Philip of Anjou, granted the Austrian Habsburgs significant territories in Italy and the Netherlands, reshaping the European balance of power.§REF§Schnettger, Der Spanische Erbfolgekrieg.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HK6DTTSH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HK6DTTSH</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nIn mid-18th century the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) challenged Maria Theresa's right to her father's throne. Despite initial setbacks, including the loss of Silesia to Prussia, Maria Theresa confirmed her rule and laid the foundation for the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty.§REF§(Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Kriegsarchiv)<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WC966X6J\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WC966X6J</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Seven Years' War (1756-1763) further tested the Habsburg power, as Maria Theresa sought to reclaim Silesia and counter Prussia’s rise. This global conflict, stretching from the heart of Europe to distant colonies, ended without altering the Silesian status quo but significantly realigned international alliances, setting the stage for future confrontations.§REF§Danley and Speelman, The Seven Years’ War.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AE3M256H\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AE3M256H</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nAt the end of the 18th century, the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778-1779) once again pitted the Habsburgs against Prussia, this time over the strategic region of Bavaria on the question of succession to the Electorate of Bavaria after the extinction of the Bavarian branch of the House of Wittelsbach. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Teschen with only minor gains for the Habsburg monarchy.\r\n§REF§Michael Kotulla, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte: vom Alten Reich bis Weimar (1495 - 1934).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U84B9DNB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: U84B9DNB</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\nIn the 19th century, the Habsburg Empire faced the challenge of Napoleonic France which resulted in the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the establishment of the Austrian Empire in 1804, Francis II became Francis I, Emperor of Austria.§REF§“Germany - Prussia, Napoleon, Reunification | Britannica.”<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F52JWVA3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: F52JWVA3</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Congress of Vienna in 1815 which laid the foundation of the post Napoleonic order in central Europe. further redefined the Habsburg realm, securing its status as a great power.§REF§Heinz Duchhardt, Der Wiener Kongress: die Neugestaltung Europas 1814/15.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KQ7ZZYPE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KQ7ZZYPE</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe revolutionary period of 1848, with its calls for liberalization and nationalism, profoundly challenged the imperial status quo, revealing the deep-seated tensions within its multi-ethnic composition.§REF§Dowe, Haupt, and Langewiesche, Europa 1848.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZDEFI38W\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZDEFI38W</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nIn response to these internal upheavals and the growing nationalist movements, “the Ausgleich” of 1867 with Hungary marked a pivotal compromise. This agreement gave rise to the Dual Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (“k. u. k.-Monarchie).\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n“The Ausgleich (“compromise”) reached with Hungary in 1867 was a major concession for Franz Joseph, and it created the so-called dualist Austria-Hungary that existed until 1918… The arrangement was dualist because it was not federalist. Rather than parceling out the monarchy into a structure in which the Austro-German lands, the Czech lands, Galicia, and Hungary-Croatia would all have roughly equal weight, it was divided simply into two, the Hungarian half and the Austrian half. This latter was not really called “Austria” but rather “Cisleithania,” meaning “beyond the Leitha River,” which was the border between Austria and Hungary. The formal name of the Cisleithanian half was “the countries and realms represented in the Reichsrat,” which gives some indication of the insubstantial basis for common identity of those territories. The governmental link between these two halves was also minimal. Foreign and military policy belonged almost exclusively to Franz Joseph. He retained the power to appoint and dismiss ministers, who thus had only a partial responsibility to parliament, and he could reject laws passed by the Reichsrat. There was a joint financial ministry and tariff regime. But details such as Hungary’s share of the budget could be renegotiated every decade, which led to repeated political conflicts in the years ahead, so dualism’s division of powers was by no means entirely clear. Nearly everything else was separate. There were distinct parliaments for the Cisleithanian and Hungarian halves, and each half had its own administrative, legal, and school systems. The realm was designated as kaiserlich (“imperial”) for the Austrian Empire of Cisleithania and königlich (“royal”) for the Kingdom of Hungary. In practice, dualism meant that the Austro-Germans dominated the other peoples in their half, and the Hungarians the other peoples in theirs. In many ways, Hungary’s weight within the Dual Monarchy only grew after 1867, thanks to economic advances that in turn fed into greater assertiveness on the part of the Magyar elite… Ultimately, even the Austro-Germans and the Hungarians disliked dualism. The former resented Hungarians’ disproportionate weight in the monarchy, while the latter constantly pushed for more autonomy and resisted any changes that would reduce their weight. And virtually all the other national groups detested the arrangement because it unfairly excluded them.” §REF§Berger, Der Österreichisch-ungarische Ausgleich von 1867.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7SEQIFJ2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7SEQIFJ2</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n“By the summer of 1918 the Habsburg dynasty’s death knell was ringing… Karl presided impotently over the progressive hollowing out of the whole monarchical state until there was almost nothing left that he actually governed. At the end of October the nearly 400-year-old monarchy dissolved in a matter of weeks. Karl issued a proposal for federalization on 16 October, but he and his idea were already irrelevant by that point. Gyula Andrássy, the last foreign minister of Austria-Hungary, said that the implicit logic behind the final, futile moves taken by the leadership was that “so that no one can kill us, we’ll commit suicide.” The initiative was instead firmly in the hands of the various national groups. On 18 October Romanians in Hungary called for union with the Kingdom of Romania. On the 21st the Germans of the monarchy declared their right to self-determination. On the 28th the Czech National Council declared independence, and on the 30th the new Czechoslovakia was officially formed. On the 29th the Croatian parliament formally dissolved its connections to Austria and Hungary and pledged to join the new Yugoslav kingdom. On the 31st the Ruthenians in Galicia announced their secession. On 1 November the Hungarians proclaimed their ties to the monarchy ended, followed ten days later by Galicia joining the new Polish republic. As all this was happening, Karl was still working at his desk in Schönbrunn, but the palace was mostly empty. Only a few loyal servants remained, since even his bodyguards had left. Finally on 11 November Karl signed papers that he was “temporarily” giving up his powers. He never formally abdicated but went into exile, first in Switzerland. Karl twice tried to retake the throne in Hungary in 1921, but after these unsuccessful attempts he was removed by the British to Madeira, where he died in 1922.”§REF§“Das Ende der Monarchie,” Die Welt der Habsburger, accessed February 4, 2024, https://www.habsburger.net/de/kapitel/das-ende-der-monarchie.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G9K39WS5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G9K39WS5</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-03-12T09:42:59.315585Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 45, "year_from": 1923, "year_to": 1991, "description": "Traditional Russian units of measurement were standardized and used in Tsarist Russia and after the Russian Revolution, but were abolished by order of the Council of People's Commissars after July 21, 1925, when the Soviet Union adopted the metric system.§REF§Очерки Истории Русской Метрологии. XI - Начало XX Века - Шостьин Н.А., n.d.,<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K39G27B6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: K39G27B6</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2023-11-28T13:46:09.616447Z", "modified_date": "2023-11-28T13:47:33.591364Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Length_measurement_system", "length_measurement_system": "present", "polity": { "id": 601, "name": "ru_soviet_union", "start_year": 1918, "end_year": 1991, "long_name": "Soviet Union", "new_name": "ru_soviet_union", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-12-12T15:11:33.853424Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 16, "name": "Eastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 26, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Old Mexican units of length included Legua, Milla, Vara etc. the metric system was adopted in 1857.§REF§(Cardarelli 2003: 164) Cardarelli, François. 2003. Encyclopaedia of Scientific Units, Weights, and Measures: Their SI Equivalences and Origins. London; New York: Springer. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/UWS9ZN34§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Length_measurement_system", "length_measurement_system": "present", "polity": { "id": 569, "name": "mx_mexico_1", "start_year": 1810, "end_year": 1920, "long_name": "Early United Mexican States", "new_name": "mx_mexico_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>'''General'''<br>This tumultuous and violent period marked by revolution and war begins following the downfall of the rule of ‘New Spain’ and the Spanish monarchy, and the Mexican Wars of Independence. “In April 1808, as French forces marched into Madrid, a sequel at Aranjuez seemed to succeed. By May, Napoleon held both Spanish Bourbons captive in Bayonne. The fall of the Spanish monarchy to its invasive ally set the stage for Mexico City’s summer of politics. Spain’s empire and New Spain would never be the same.”§REF§(Tutino 2018: 150) Tutino, John. 2018. Mexico City, 1808: Power Sovereignty, and Silver in an Age of War and Revolution. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z5SZU2AP§REF§ “Then escalating conflicts exploded in insurgencies in September of 1810. Authorities set in power by armed force faced a people in arms. Unprecedented violence drove political conflicts begun by provincial elites while tens of thousands took arms to claim the necessities of survival in the core regions of silver capitalism. The regime of mediation disabled by the coup of 1808 dissolved in political and social violence beginning in 1810. Silver capitalism broke quickly. As conflicts continued, Spain’s empire fell as New Spain became Mexico in 1821.”§REF§(Tutino 2018: 230) Tutino, John. 2018. Mexico City, 1808: Power Sovereignty, and Silver in an Age of War and Revolution. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z5SZU2AP§REF§ “Mexico was born in political and social violence, every faction proclaiming a vision of popular sovereignty backed by armed power. In that conflictive process, the silver economy and regime of mediation that for centuries had made New Spain wealthy, stable, and central to global capitalism were destroyed. The Mexican nation that emerged would be plagued by violence and instability unknown in New Spain before the crises and transformations of 1808–1810.”§REF§(Tutino 2018: 248) Tutino, John. 2018. Mexico City, 1808: Power Sovereignty, and Silver in an Age of War and Revolution. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z5SZU2AP§REF§ “The new nation that came out of the conflicts of 1808 to 1821, briefly a Mexican monarchy, then a republic from 1824, searched simultaneously for a new polity and a new economy.”§REF§(Tutino 2018: 252) Tutino, John. 2018. Mexico City, 1808: Power Sovereignty, and Silver in an Age of War and Revolution. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z5SZU2AP§REF§ <br>This polity is bookend by the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920)<br>'''Politics'''<br>“Political instability continued for decades after independence. From 1821 to 1867, Mexico had 56 administrations (Ponzio, 2005), and in the 55 years between independence and the Porfi riato, the presidency changed hands 75 times as a result of the continuous struggle between the conservative and liberal factions (Haber, 1989). In contrast, the United States had 13 administrations in the 52 years between 1817 and 1869 (Ponzio, 2005). Between 1824 and 1867, the average term of a president in Mexico was 15 months, 7 months for both the ministers of war and justice, and less than 5 months for the ministers of finance and foreign relations (Ponzio, 2005). The generalized episodes of civil unrest and violence reduced the population, disrupted mining and agricultural production, and severely curtailed trade and communications, thus further fragmenting the linkages among different regions. In addition, the struggle for independence brought about a temporary dismantling of the monetary union. A particularly disastrous consequence of the prolonged civil strife was the loss to the United States of half of Mexico’s national territory in the mid-19th century.”§REF§(Moreno-Brid and Ros 2009: 31-32) Moreno-Brid, Juan Carlos and Ros, Jaime. 2009. Development and Growth in the Mexican Economy: A Historical Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PZXKGTTV§REF§<br>“Porfirio Díaz’s [r. 1884-1910] first re-election to the presidency in 1884 marked a significant watershed in the political evolution of the regime. As a foretaste of what was to come, Díaz was unopposed in the election. Thereafter, a dual process of consolidation and transformation took place in the regime. While many of the mechanisms and tactics of political pragmatism continued to be employed in the attempt to mediate and manage factional divisions, the personal and patriarchal authority of the president at the apex of the hierarchy of power became gradually consolidated, and increasingly uncontested… Although the regime became increasingly centralized and authoritarian, nevertheless important constraints existed on presidential authority. In other words, Díaz never enjoyed the absolute political control that his critics have argued, because the process of centralization and consolidation was always contested, challenged and resisted at a variety of levels. Political factionalism, dissidence, and rebellion remained constant during the era.”§REF§(Garner 2011: 297-298) Garner, Paul. 2011. “The Civilian and the General, 1867–1911,” in A Companion to Mexican History and Culture, ed. William H. Beezley. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. 288–301. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EMSG558V§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 2, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"Islam was unifying element in much of the Indian Ocean, especially on both sides—the east African coast and the Malay world. The east African societies relied on Islam to help create their world since their identity derived not only from commercial links with co-religionists but on specific modes of social and commercial behavior. The Muslim religion gave prescriptions as to everyday conduct. The Koran had specific admonitions on fair practice in the market place. The Koranic injunction to have balance scales led to the appearance of a market inspector called the muhtash whose specific job was to oversee local transactions and check weights and measures among other duties.\" §REF§ (Rothman 2002: 80) Rothman, Norman C. 2002. “Indian Ocean Trading Links: The Swahili Experience,” Comparative Civilizations Review. Vol 46:6. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Rothman/titleCreatorYear/items/3WJ42ET7/item-list §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Length_measurement_system", "length_measurement_system": "present", "polity": { "id": 637, "name": "so_adal_sultanate", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1543, "long_name": "Adal Sultanate", "new_name": "so_adal_sultanate", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_EAST", "general_description": "The Adal Sultanate was one of the earliest Islamic Sultanates in the Somali region. The Adal, which was part of the Walasma Dynasty, was originally established in the late 9th or early 10th centuries based at the costal port city of Zelia on the Gulf of Aden. §REF§ (Mukhtar 2016, Encyclopedia of Empire) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2016. ‘Adal Sultanate.’ In J. Mackenzie Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FM8D55XW/library\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FM8D55XW/library</a> §REF§<br> During this time the dynasty was under the confederation of a larger Ifat Sultanate. It was not until the last quarter of the 14th century that the Adal became a powerful Sultanate that controlled vast swaths of territory from the Harar reigion to the Gulf of Aden up through present-day Eritrea. §REF§ (Tamrat 2008, 149) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list</a> §REF§<br>The Adal Sultanate was frequently in conflict with the Christian kingdoms in Ethiopia, most notably from the 14th through the 16th centuries. The most powerful leader of the Adal Sultanate was Ahmād Ibrāhīm al Ghāzī also known as Ahmad Gurey (1506-1543). Gurey titled himself as imām and declared jihad on Christian Ethiopia. During his rule, he was supplied with military supplies from the Ottoman Empire which helped his army conquer over three-quarters of Ethiopia and even defeat early attacks from the Portuguese. His farthest inland campaign reached south-eastern Sudan. In 1543, imam Ahmad was mortally wounded in battle by Ethiopian and Portuguese forces at Lake Tana whom defeated the imam’s army. After the imam’s death the Adal Sultanate disintegrated and was absorbed into different kingdoms. §REF§ (Mukhtar 2016, Encyclopedia of Empire) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2016. ‘Adal Sultanate.’ In J. Mackenzie Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FM8D55XW/library\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FM8D55XW/library</a> §REF§<br>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 2, "name": "East Africa", "subregions_list": "Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 3, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"Islam was unifying element in much of the Indian Ocean, especially on both sides—the east African coast and the Malay world. The east African societies relied on Islam to help create their world since their identity derived not only from commercial links with co-religionists but on specific modes of social and commercial behavior. The Muslim religion gave prescriptions as to everyday conduct. The Koran had specific admonitions on fair practice in the market place. The Koranic injunction to have balance scales led to the appearance of a market inspector called the muhtash whose specific job was to oversee local transactions and check weights and measures among other duties.\" §REF§ (Rothman 2002: 80) Rothman, Norman C. 2002. “Indian Ocean Trading Links: The Swahili Experience,” Comparative Civilizations Review. Vol 46:6. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Rothman/titleCreatorYear/items/3WJ42ET7/item-list §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Length_measurement_system", "length_measurement_system": "present", "polity": { "id": 638, "name": "so_tunni_sultanate", "start_year": 800, "end_year": 1200, "long_name": "Tunni Sultanate", "new_name": "so_tunni_sultanate", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_EAST", "general_description": "The Tunni Sultanate was a Somalian Sultanate that originated sometime in the nineth century CE on the Benadir Coast. The Tunni Sultanate had established its capital at Qoryooley. §REF§ (Mukhtar 2003, 50) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2003. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/J8WZB6VI/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/J8WZB6VI/collection</a> §REF§ The Tunni Sultanate was one of the first groups in Somalia to embrace Islam. The language spoken within the Sultanate was a local language called Af-Maay, while inscriptions from the twelfth century CE suggest that some within the Sultante knew the Arabic language. §REF§ (Mukhtar 2003, 50) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2003. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/J8WZB6VI/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/J8WZB6VI/collection</a> §REF§; §REF§ (Tamrat 2008, 137) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/search/tam/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/search/tam/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list</a> §REF§ The Sultanate ended sometime within the thirteenth century CE.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 2, "name": "East Africa", "subregions_list": "Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 4, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"Islam was unifying element in much of the Indian Ocean, especially on both sides—the east African coast and the Malay world. The east African societies relied on Islam to help create their world since their identity derived not only from commercial links with co-religionists but on specific modes of social and commercial behavior. The Muslim religion gave prescriptions as to everyday conduct. The Koran had specific admonitions on fair practice in the market place. The Koranic injunction to have balance scales led to the appearance of a market inspector called the muhtash whose specific job was to oversee local transactions and check weights and measures among other duties.\" §REF§ (Rothman 2002: 80) Rothman, Norman C. 2002. “Indian Ocean Trading Links: The Swahili Experience,” Comparative Civilizations Review. Vol. 46:6. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Rothman/titleCreatorYear/items/3WJ42ET7/item-list §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Length_measurement_system", "length_measurement_system": "present", "polity": { "id": 639, "name": "so_ajuran_sultanate", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1700, "long_name": "Ajuran Sultanate", "new_name": "so_ajuran_sultanate", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_EAST", "general_description": "The Ajuran Sultanate originated in the mid-sixteenth century as a leading clan of confederated states which included the Muzzafar Dynasty of Mogadishu. The Ajuran Sultanate controlled the Shabelle valley in southern Somalia all the way to the Kenyan border. §REF§ (Mukhtar 2003, 35) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2003. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Mukhtar/titleCreatorYear/items/J8WZB6VI/item-list\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Mukhtar/titleCreatorYear/items/J8WZB6VI/item-list</a> §REF§ The Sultanate’s capital was the Indian Ocean port city of Marka, which allowed for lucrative trade connections with other parts of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, India and China. §REF§ (Njoku 2013, 40) Njoku, Raphael C. 2013. The History of Somalia. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library</a> §REF§ The Ajuran leader was known as the imam or emir. Below the imam were a number of governors and viceroys that helped maintain the Sultanate. By the 18th century internal resistance to Ajuran rule by various clan alliances led to the Sultanate’s decline which ultimately allowed for other kingdoms to rise in its place. §REF§ (Mukhtar 2003, 35) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2003. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Mukhtar/titleCreatorYear/items/J8WZB6VI/item-list\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Mukhtar/titleCreatorYear/items/J8WZB6VI/item-list</a> §REF§ Within the literature consulted, there has been no mention of population numbers for this polity.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 2, "name": "East Africa", "subregions_list": "Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 36, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Length_measurement_system", "length_measurement_system": "present", "polity": { "id": 587, "name": "gb_british_emp_1", "start_year": 1690, "end_year": 1849, "long_name": "British Empire I", "new_name": "gb_british_emp_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>The British Empire consisted of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by England (later as Britain after the Union Act of 1707).<br>The foundations of the Empire began in the early seventeenth century when England established overseas trading posts in North America, Africa, India, South Asia and the West Indies. By 1600 the East India Company had already established trading posts in India. In 1661 the first permanent British settlement was made on James Island on the Gambia River in Africa.<br>British American colonies were well established in New England, Virginia, and Maryland by 1670. After a series of wars with France and the Netherlands in the seventeenth century, Britain also acquired Quebec in 1759 and become the dominant colonial power in North America. Following the American War of Independence (1776-83) Britain lost its thirteen American colonies. Many loyalists from the US migrated to Canada, further growing the empire’s colonies there.<br>By 1757 Britain had also become the leading power in the Indian subcontinent, after the East India Company, under the colonial administrator, Robert Clive, defeated the Mughal Empire and overthrew the Nawabs. <br>By the 1840s Britain had acquired more settlements in Australia, and New Zealand became a British domain, while control was extended to islands in the Pacific Ocean such as Fiji, Tonga and Papua.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-11-20T11:00:44.261539Z", "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 5, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"Islam was unifying element in much of the Indian Ocean, especially on both sides—the east African coast and the Malay world. The east African societies relied on Islam to help create their world since their identity derived not only from commercial links with co-religionists but on specific modes of social and commercial behavior. The Muslim religion gave prescriptions as to everyday conduct. The Koran had specific admonitions on fair practice in the market place. The Koranic injunction to have balance scales led to the appearance of a market inspector called the muhtash whose specific job was to oversee local transactions and check weights and measures among other duties.\" §REF§ (Rothman 2002: 80) Rothman, Norman C. 2002. “Indian Ocean Trading Links: The Swahili Experience,” Comparative Civilizations Review. Vol 46:6. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Rothman/titleCreatorYear/items/3WJ42ET7/item-list §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Length_measurement_system", "length_measurement_system": "present", "polity": { "id": 642, "name": "so_geledi_sultanate", "start_year": 1750, "end_year": 1911, "long_name": "Sultanate of Geledi", "new_name": "so_geledi_sultanate", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_EAST", "general_description": "The Geledi Sultanate was part of the Gobroon Dynasty that was either established in the seventeenth or the first half of the eighteenth centuries. The capital of the Geledi Sultanate was the town of Afgoy, located on the lower Shebelle River, twenty km from Mogadishu. §REF§ (Luling 1971, 202) Luling, Virginia. 1971. The Social Structure of Southern Somali Tribes. (Thesis). University of London (University College London). Seshat URL:<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/5BTAQ3DM/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/5BTAQ3DM/collection</a> §REF§ According to Njoku, the apex of the Sultanate was from 1789 to 1848 under the rule of Sultan Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim. The Geledi Sultanate had a robust army which helped to quell regional dissent from various groups. In 1843, the Sultanate defeated the fundamentalist Baardheere Jamaaca jihadists who wanted to bring ultra-religious ideals into the region. The Geledi Sultanate also controlled valuable trade networks particularly at the port of Mogadishu. By the end of the nineteenth century, the Sultanate’s influence waned due to regional fighting and interference from European colonists. §REF§ (Njoku 2013, 41) Njoku, Raphael C. 2013. The History of Somalia. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library</a> §REF§<br> In 1911, the territory of the Sultanate was annexed by Italy in their creation of Italian Somaliland. §REF§ (Luling 1971, 202) Luling, Virginia. 1971. The Social Structure of Southern Somali Tribes. (Thesis). University of London (University College London). Seshat URL:<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/5BTAQ3DM/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/5BTAQ3DM/collection</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 2, "name": "East Africa", "subregions_list": "Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 1, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "NO_DESCRIPTION", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Length_measurement_system", "length_measurement_system": "present", "polity": { "id": 632, "name": "nl_dutch_emp_1", "start_year": 1648, "end_year": 1795, "long_name": "Dutch Empire", "new_name": "nl_dutch_emp_1", "polity_tag": "POL_SA_SI", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 22, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " The phrase \"standard measurements of beads\", in the following quotes, implies the possible existence of a measurement system, at least one used to measure beads in terms of quantity and/or quality. \"We are short of evidence on whether glass beads evolved to serve as a standard currency, especially as a means of pricing. However, strings and other standard measurements of beads were likely used for purchasing high-value products and services.\" §REF§(Ogundiran 2020: 107-108)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Length_measurement_system", "length_measurement_system": "present", "polity": { "id": 656, "name": "ni_yoruba_classic", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1400, "long_name": "Classical Ife", "new_name": "ni_yoruba_classic", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }