Gov Obl Rel Grp Ofc Reco List
A viewset for viewing and editing Governmental Obligations for Religious Groups to Apply for Official Recognitions.
GET /api/rt/governmental-obligations-for-religious-groups-to-apply-for-official-recognitions/?ordering=-drb_reviewed&page=2
{ "count": 247, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/rt/governmental-obligations-for-religious-groups-to-apply-for-official-recognitions/?ordering=-drb_reviewed&page=3", "previous": "https://seshatdata.com/api/rt/governmental-obligations-for-religious-groups-to-apply-for-official-recognitions/?ordering=-drb_reviewed", "results": [ { "id": 82, "year_from": 1140, "year_to": 1503, "description": "‘‘‘ The following quote suggests a general attitude of tolerance on the ruler's part towards the polity's small Christian community. “Duarte Pires posits that Oba Esigie later found a genuine interest in Christianity hence he ordered his son and two of his nobles to become Christians and to be baptized (Bradbury, 1967). It is also on the strength of this that he instructed the missionaries to build churches at Ogbelaka, Idunmwerie, and Akpakpava during his reign.” §REF§ (Aremu and Ediagbonya 2018: 85-86) Johnson Olaosebikan Aremu; Michael Ediagbonya(2018). “Trade and Religion in British-Benin Relations, 1553-1897”, Global Journal of Social Sciences Studies, 4(2), pp.78-90. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BZ3FI3NU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BZ3FI3NU </b></a> §REF§ “In 1514 oba Esiegie sent a delegation to Portugal […] asking for a Christian mission and firearms. What Benin needed from the Portuguese was, above all, firearms. King Manuel I was, however, reluctant to sell weapons to pagans. […] Actually the oba was far less interested in Christianity than he was in obtaining firearms, and though he learned to speak Portuguese, permitted the establishment of a Christian mission, and allowed his son Orhogba and some officials to be baptized, he did not accept baptism himself.” §REF§ (Sandomirsky 2013: 134) Sandomirsky, Natalie, 2013. “Benin, Empire: Oba Awuare, Trade with the Portuguese”, in Shillington, Kevin (ed.), Encyclopedia of African History 3 (London: Taylor and Francis), pp. 133-134. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8WV9FCMD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8WV9FCMD </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Governmental obligations for religious groups to apply for official recognition", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 672, "name": "ni_benin_emp", "start_year": 1140, "end_year": 1897, "long_name": "Benin Empire", "new_name": "ni_benin_emp", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 84, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "No information found in the sources consulted.", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Governmental obligations for religious groups to apply for official recognition", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 717, "name": "tz_early_tana_2", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 1099, "long_name": "Early Tana 2", "new_name": "tz_early_tana_2", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 2, "name": "East Africa", "subregions_list": "Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 85, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "The following quote suggests that significant tensions between the secular government and Muslim minority only began to emerge in the 19th century, and even then the quote implies that it was more a question of the Muslim minority rebelling against the faults they perceived in the majority's religious practices (including rulers), rather than against restrictions the government imposed on their own. NB, also, that it is not clear to what extent what is described is specific to the Jolof Kingdom, and how much of it could be applied to other Wolof polities, such as the Baol Kingdom. Overall, however, the similarities seem sufficient between these polities that the following information likely does largely apply to the Baol Kingdom as well. \"Despite this dichotomy, clerics and rulers were in general mutually tolerant; marabouts accomodated themselves to religious laxity and in return were protected as good subjects by the rulers: 'The country of the Bourb-Joloffs contains more Pagans than Mahometans. The latter are held there in high consideration in consequence of the mildness and toleration which they affect.' Most marabouts lived in their own villages with their followers. [...] Mutual tolerance and harmony did not always reign between rulers and clerics, for there were periodic jihads (Islamic religious wars) in Senegambia from at least the seventeenth century, and some of these affected Jolof. [...] During this period tensions grew in all the Wolof states as marabouts became increasingly dissatisfied with their traditional positions in society. These tensions were greatest in Kajoor, where one region, Njambur, was marabout-controlled, and twice in the nineteenth century these marabouts rebelled against their dameel in unsuccessful attempts to create an Islamic state. Real religious change in Jolof did not begin until Ma Ba led his successful jihad in Rip and Saalum in the 1860s.\" §REF§(Charles 1977: 19-22) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NRGZDV3Z\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NRGZDV3Z </b></a>§REF§ The following quote suggests that it was more important for the govenment that the Sereer minnority accept the monarchy than Islam. \"Wolof kings adopted different strategies towards Sereer populations living within their domains. If they refused to recognize monarchy, they could in the name of Islam be attacked and raided for slaves and cattle with impunity. On the other hand Wolof kings were willing to negotiate agreements with Sereer populations in which each side gained concrete advantages. A member of the royal family ruled Mbayar province in Bawol, which was administered by a royal slave (Farba). Within the province Wolof officials (sax-sax) collected tribute and drafted animals and young men to fertilize and cultivate fields for their Wolof overlords. In exchange, the Sereer were allowed to practice their religion and the Wolof king was required to appear before Sereer diviners at the beginning of his reign.\" §REF§(Searing 2002: 413-414) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EX4PA7NU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EX4PA7NU </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Governmental obligations for religious groups to apply for official recognition", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 676, "name": "se_baol_k", "start_year": 1550, "end_year": 1890, "long_name": "Kingdom of Baol", "new_name": "se_baol_k", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": "The Kingdom of Baol became an independent kingdom after the breakup of the Jolof Empire in the mid-sixteenth century. Baol established its capital in Lambaye. §REF§ (Bigon and Ross 2020, 42) Bigon, Liora and Ross, Eric. 2020. Grid Planning in the Urban Design Practices of Senegal. London: Springer. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection</a> §REF§<br> Some scholars such as Fiona McLaughlin have classified the Kingdom of Baol as a Wolof kingdom while Liora Bigon and Eric Ross and Ibrahima Thiaw have grouped the Baol along with its Sereer neighbours. Nevertheless, the Kingdom of Baol had longstanding unions with the Wolof kingdom of Cayor throughout its duration and their leader was known as the damel-teen signifying the merging of both kingdoms. The Kingdom of Baol like its coastal neighbours participated in trade relations with various European partners, particularly the French. §REF§ (Ogot 1999, 138) Ogot, B. A. 1999. ‘Senegambia from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century: Evolution of Wolof, Sereer and Tukuloor.’ In General History of Africa V. from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/862PZTJ6/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/862PZTJ6/collection</a> §REF§ In 1890 CE the Kingdom of Baol became a protectorate of the French Empire. §REF§ (Glover 2009, 74) Glover, John. 2019. ‘Murid Modernity: Historical Perceptions of Islamic Reform, Sufism, and Colonization.’ In New Perspectives on Islam in Senegal: Conversion, Migration, Wealth, Power, and Femininity. Edited by Mamadou Diouf and Mara Leichtman. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ET3G9CJD/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ET3G9CJD/collection</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 86, "year_from": 1100, "year_to": 1779, "description": "‘‘‘ The following suggests: an earlier period where there was no or little Islamic presence; a middle period in which Muslims were allowed to live in the polity but had to obey several restrictions, though it is unclear whether this included having to apply for official recognition; and a late period where it seems they could worship freely. \"The first recorded contact between the Mossi and Moslems took place around 1328 when the Yatenga Mossi attacked, burned, and sacked Timbuktu, then held by the Dia dynasty of the Songhoi (Dubois 1896:251). [...] The pagan Mossi and the Moslem Songhoi fought several other battles until Songhoi power was broken by the Moroccans, who conquered Timbuktu in 1590. \"The Moslems made no further attempt to convert the Mossi by force, but Moslem pressure did not stop; it now came in the peaceful guise of Moslem merchants and Yarsé Moslem refugees from the Mandingo cities such as Timbuktu and Djenne, who received permission from the Mossi rulers to settle in the country. However, judging from the reports of the first Europeans to reach the Mossi, the Moslems lived under many restrictions and were forbidden by the Moro Nabas to recite their prayers in public places (Tauxier 1912:585 586). Despite these restrictions, the Moslems were able to extend their influence through conversion of the cadet sons of the rulers and conversion of at least one ruler of the Ouagadougou Mossi dynasty. \"About 1780 Naba Kom, the son of Zombré and a Yarsé Moslem woman, permitted the Yarsé to live in the villages and sent one of them to the Gold Coast for religious instruction. His son, Naba Sagha, was involved in a civil war and replaced some dissident pagan district chiefs with his Moslem sons. The present ruling lineage of Noberé (where I worked) is descended from Ngado, one of these sons. But although the rulers permitted their younger sons to adopt Islam, they themselves and the heirs to the thrones remained pagan in order to maintain the bonds with the ancestors. The exception to this rule was Doulougou, the grandson of Sagha, who was elected Moro Naba despite being a Moslem. Now the spread of Islam was given new impetus: Yarsé proselyting increased, mosques were built in Ouagadougou and in the villages, and many Koranic schools were founded. But with Doulougou's death the rulers reverted to paganism and Moslem influence declined. Nevertheless, the learned Moslem Imams continued to serve at court and used their knowledge of the outside world for the benefit of the rulers.\" §REF§(Skinner 1958: 1105) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXVG26H7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FXVG26H7 </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Governmental obligations for religious groups to apply for official recognition", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 620, "name": "bf_mossi_k_1", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1897, "long_name": "Mossi", "new_name": "bf_mossi_k_1", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 87, "year_from": 1780, "year_to": 1897, "description": "‘‘‘ The following suggests: an earlier period where there was no or little Islamic presence; a middle period in which Muslims were allowed to live in the polity but had to obey several restrictions, though it is unclear whether this included having to apply for official recognition; and a late period where it seems they could worship freely. \"The first recorded contact between the Mossi and Moslems took place around 1328 when the Yatenga Mossi attacked, burned, and sacked Timbuktu, then held by the Dia dynasty of the Songhoi (Dubois 1896:251). [...] The pagan Mossi and the Moslem Songhoi fought several other battles until Songhoi power was broken by the Moroccans, who conquered Timbuktu in 1590. \"The Moslems made no further attempt to convert the Mossi by force, but Moslem pressure did not stop; it now came in the peaceful guise of Moslem merchants and Yarsé Moslem refugees from the Mandingo cities such as Timbuktu and Djenne, who received permission from the Mossi rulers to settle in the country. However, judging from the reports of the first Europeans to reach the Mossi, the Moslems lived under many restrictions and were forbidden by the Moro Nabas to recite their prayers in public places (Tauxier 1912:585 586). Despite these restrictions, the Moslems were able to extend their influence through conversion of the cadet sons of the rulers and conversion of at least one ruler of the Ouagadougou Mossi dynasty. \"About 1780 Naba Kom, the son of Zombré and a Yarsé Moslem woman, permitted the Yarsé to live in the villages and sent one of them to the Gold Coast for religious instruction. His son, Naba Sagha, was involved in a civil war and replaced some dissident pagan district chiefs with his Moslem sons. The present ruling lineage of Noberé (where I worked) is descended from Ngado, one of these sons. But although the rulers permitted their younger sons to adopt Islam, they themselves and the heirs to the thrones remained pagan in order to maintain the bonds with the ancestors. The exception to this rule was Doulougou, the grandson of Sagha, who was elected Moro Naba despite being a Moslem. Now the spread of Islam was given new impetus: Yarsé proselyting increased, mosques were built in Ouagadougou and in the villages, and many Koranic schools were founded. But with Doulougou's death the rulers reverted to paganism and Moslem influence declined. Nevertheless, the learned Moslem Imams continued to serve at court and used their knowledge of the outside world for the benefit of the rulers.\" §REF§(Skinner 1958: 1105) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXVG26H7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FXVG26H7 </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Governmental obligations for religious groups to apply for official recognition", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 620, "name": "bf_mossi_k_1", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1897, "long_name": "Mossi", "new_name": "bf_mossi_k_1", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 97, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "No information found in the literature. Indeed, what little literature we have been able to access provides little information on this period, not just with regards to religious matters. Some of the region's modern-day ethnic groups first arrived in the region or already inhabited it in the period under consideration, but it is unclear to us whether any aspect of their traditional beliefs and practices was also present at this time.", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Governmental obligations for religious groups to apply for official recognition", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 616, "name": "si_pre_sape", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 1400, "long_name": "Pre-Sape Sierra Leone", "new_name": "si_pre_sape", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": "\"It is generally accepted that the Limba, Bullom, Kissi, Krim, Vai, and Themne peoples were in Sierra Leone before the 16th century. The Limba and Bullom groups are regarded as the earliest autochthonous groups. The Limba preceded every other group, including the Bullom, in settling the area. Cecil Magbaily Fyle places Limba presence in the Wara Wara Mountains of northern Sierra Leone in the 7th century, based on the research findings of the archeologist John Atherton. Atherton discovered stone tools and other artifacts in the Wara Wara hills that are dated to the 7th century. [...] After settling the Wara Wara Mountains, the Limba expanded their territory and interaction with other groups. Their cultural encounters with later arrivals, such as the Themne and Loko, would produce Limba subgroups including the Biriwa, Wara Wara, Saffroko, and Sela, who inhabit the present-day Sierra Leone districts of Bombali, Kambia, and Koinadugu. [...] While the Limba may have preceded the Bullom in Sierra Leone, Rodney notes that the Bullom were the “single dominant element along the coast” by the 12th century. He associates the Bullom with the Kissi and Krim groups, who all shared “extremely closely related” languages. Rodney points out that the Kissi occupied much of the “eastern portion of the present Republic of Guinea and the region along the present Sierra Leone–Liberia frontier, with the Krim to their south or near the coast.” The Kissi continue to be a transnational group, found in the southeastern region where the borders of Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Liberia converge.\"§REF§(Cole 2021) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WBFJ8QU5/collection.§REF§\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WBFJ8QU5/collection.§REF§</a>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-11T13:45:35.889752Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 100, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Seemingly peaceful relations with the Muslim minority, not to mention their roles in service to the king, suggest no significant restrictions on Islamic activity. As for Christianity, the literature consulted clearly points to persecution of missionaries between 1860 and 1867 at least, but does not mention any obligation to apply for official recognition on the part of the missionaries, who were instead simply expelled from the capital. However, we are not sure how to interpret the fact that no sources could be found providing information on the period c. 1868-1900. The fact that Christian missionary activity is usually well documented makes us reluctant to use the code \"suspected unknown\" for that period, and provisionally suggests, in this case, that Christian activity and/or Christian dealings with the government at this time, both negative and positive, were sufficiently low-profile at this time as to be negligible. “Muslims had featured prominently in the Attah's court as scribes, interpreters, advisers and judges. Like in Jukun, over the centuries the number of these Muslim settlers increased as the Igala evidently accommodated them. […] Peaceful contacts, travels, communications and commerce had existed between the Northern Muslims and the peoples of the non-Muslim areas. [...] [T]he rulers (especially the Attah of Igala and the Aku of Wukari) [...] utilized the services of Muslims during warfare and in preparing charms for their personal well-being. In return, these rulers cheerfully participated in some Muslim festivals and Islamic rites though they remained non-Muslims.” §REF§ (Abdulkadir 2011: 4-5, 6, 10) Mohammed Sanni Abdulkadir, 2011. “ISLAM IN THE NON-MUSLIM AREAS OF NORTHERN NIGERIA, c.1600-1960”, Ilorin Journal of Religious Studies, (IJOURELS) Vol.1 No.1, 2011, Pp.1-20. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BZHQCJFG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BZHQCJFG </b></a> §REF§ Inferred based on the tense relationship between the Idah’s rulers and the missionaries from the very beginning. “The CMS Mission among the Igala was thus begun in a context fraught with acute political and diplomatic sensitivity by the rulership of the Igala kingdom.” §REF§ (Kolapo 2019: 146) Kolapo, F.J. (2019). Management of Conversion on the Upper Niger and at the Confluence. In: Christian Missionary Engagement in Central Nigeria, 1857–1891. African Histories and Modernities. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TM9Q67F2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: TM9Q67F2 </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Governmental obligations for religious groups to apply for official recognition", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 667, "name": "ni_igala_k", "start_year": 1600, "end_year": 1900, "long_name": "Igala", "new_name": "ni_igala_k", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 106, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "‘‘‘", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Governmental obligations for religious groups to apply for official recognition", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "KhFunaE", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540, "long_name": "Funan I", "new_name": "kh_funan_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "'Funan' is the name the Chinese gave to the polity (or cluster of polities) that, between the 3rd and the 7th centuries CE, ruled over much of the southern portion of mainland Southeast Asia ‒ including territory that is today southern Vietnam, Thailand, and Myanmar, as well as all of Cambodia. §REF§ (West 2009, 222) Barbara West. 2009. <i>Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ Most likely, what we now know as Funan emerged from Iron Age settlements around the Mekong Delta and the banks of the Mekong river. §REF§ (O'Reilly 2007, 91, 97) Dougald J. W. O'Reilly. 2007. <i>Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia</i>. Lanham: AltaMira Press. §REF§ The best known of these settlements is the archaeological site of Oc Èo ‒ hence the name 'culture of Oc Èo' to describe mainland Southeast Asian culture at this time. §REF§ (Ooi 2004, 6-7) Keat Gin Ooi. 2004. 'Introduction', in <i>Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor</i>, edited by Ooi Keat Gin, 1-109. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio. §REF§ <br>Because it is difficult to pinpoint precisely when Funan was founded, here we use 225 CE as our start date. According to written records, this was the year in which the first Funanese embassy visited the Southern Chinese kingdom of Wu. §REF§ (Pelliot 1903, 303) Paul Pelliot. 1903. 'Le Fou-Nan'. <i>Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient</i> 3: 248-303. §REF§ We selected 539 CE as our end date, corresponding to the year King Rudravarman offered the gift of a live rhinoceros to the emperor at Beijing. This is the last time a Funanese ruler is mentioned in any existing records, and indeed it seems that Funan entered a period of gradual decline around this time, until it was supplanted by the Northern Cambodian state of Chenla or Zhenla in the 7th century. §REF§ (Tully 2005, 13) John Tully. 2005. <i>A Short History of Cambodia: From Empire to Survival</i>. Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. §REF§ Chenla is the older spelling, the modern romanization of the Chinese character is Zhenla. §REF§ (Miksic, John. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email) §REF§ <br>Funan was rather prosperous, due to its privileged position at the crossroads of important trade routes that linked with India and China. Sources suggest that it reached its peak either in the mid-3rd century (when it extended its influence into Malaysia) §REF§ (Gin 2004, 11) Ooi Keat Gin. 2004. 'Introduction', in <i>Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor</i>, edited by Ooi Keat Gin, 1-109. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio. §REF§ or between the end of the 5th and the beginning of the 6th century (when it was ruled by King Kaundinya Jayavarman and reached its maximum territorial extent, as well as the zenith of its political and economic power). §REF§ (West 2009, 223-24) Barbara West. 2009. <i>Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>It is not entirely clear whether Funan was a unitary state, as suggested by Chinese records, or a cluster of competing centres, or indeed the most powerful out of many such polities. §REF§ (Mabbett and Chandler 1995, 73) Ian Mabbett and David Chandler. 1995. <i>The Khmers</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. §REF§ The highest political authority was probably something like a Mon-Khmer <i>poñ</i>, that is, a settlement chief. There may have been a loose hierarchy of poñ, possibly based on wealth and political influence, with the wealthiest and most powerful poñ viewed as 'kings' by the Chinese. §REF§ (Vickery 1998, 19-20) Michael Vickery. 1998. <i>Society, Economics, and Politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: The 7th-8th Centuries</i>. Chicago: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for Funan could be found in the literature, as work continues to locate and study settlements from this period. However, it is worth noting that the site of Oc Èo may have covered 450 hectares, with a possible population of many thousands of people. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 65) Michael Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. London: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 17, "name": "Cambodian Basin", "subregion": "Siam", "longitude": "103.866700000000", "latitude": "13.412500000000", "capital_city": "Angkor Wat", "nga_code": "KH", "fao_country": "Cambodia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 41, "name": "Mainland", "subregions_list": "Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 119, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "‘‘‘Sources emphasise an attitude of religious tolerance/accommodation as a deliberate governing policy for Lysimachus, building on an approach already in place across the Macedonian Empire and the Persian Empire. However, detailed records or analysis of how this was implemented or received are limited in the sources consulted.“In the wake of Alexander the Great, Asia Minor underwent an unprecedented wave of urbanism as the Greek city, or polis, became the common denominator in a globalizing world. […] Several of these [pre-existing local cult] gods were adopted as protective deities that stood symbol for the rising city. In return, their sanctuaries were monumentalized and made the venues of great civic festivals – a symbiosis clearly took place between both entities as they merged into one. […] They were used to forge the identity of the developing polis, accommodating local communities while redirecting the new civic focus. Gods that were local or regional began to appear on civic coinage, received grand festivals and processions, and their once rustic shrines took on the shape of urban space. As the rising polis took its identity from these gods, so the gaze of the gods was shifted towards the new community, and their sanctuaries reorganized to meet its aspirations.” §REF§ (Williamson, 2021, 2) Williamson, C. G. (2021). Urban Rituals in Sacred Landscapes in Hellenistic Asia Minor. Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G337ZI6A\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G337ZI6A </b></a> §REF§ “During the Hellenistic period, Hellenes began to equate the gods of foreign lands with their own native deities in a process often referred to by scholars as interpretatio or “translation”. A Hellene could, without any apparent theological dilemma, worship any foreign god that most closely resembled his own native deity. […] In the past these equations were seen as evidence of the impact of Hellenism in foreign lands. However, recent scholars have pointed out that these equations are found only in Greek sources, not Near Eastern ones, making them unlikely representations of Hellenization. Of course, this does not mean that they do not represent an effort to spread Hellenic culture, only that they do not represent the successful result of such an effort. Others have seen these translations as evidence for “syncretism” or “hybridity”, that is, the fusion of Aegean and Near Eastern religions. However, neither “syncretism” or “hybridity” offers a particularly useful model for understanding the process of interpretatio, and not just because of their tainted colonial histories. Neither model helps us to ascertain the processes that underlie these equations, and so neither is able to provide anything but a characterization of a phenomenon.” §REF§(Noegel, 2007,32 ) Noegel, S.B. 2007: Greek Religion and the Ancient Near East. In: D. Ogden (ed.): A Companion to Greek Religion. Malden MA, 21–37. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WGAEUJT7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WGAEUJT7 </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Governmental obligations for religious groups to apply for official recognition", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 169, "name": "TrLysim", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -281, "long_name": "Lysimachus Kingdom", "new_name": "tr_lysimachus_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Thracian kingdom under Lysimachus constituted only a short period in the history of the area. The Odrysian Kingdom was present in Thrace before it was conquered by Philip II, then ruled by Alexander the Great until his death in 323 BCE. Lysimachus, one of Alexander’s Successors, took over governorship of the area and eventually declared himself king in 306 BCE. Lysimachus ruled with an expansionist policy, and extended the kingdom to its furthest reaches by around 300 BCE. §REF§ (Dimitrov 2011, 13) K Dimitrov. 2011. Economic, Social and Political Structures on the Territory of the Odrysian Kingdom in Thrace (5th - first half of the 3rd century BC). ORPHEUS. Journal of IndoEuropean and Thracian Studies. 18, p. 4-24. §REF§ His reign was however, very short lived. He was defeated at the Battle of Corupedium by Seleucus (ruler of the Seleucid Empire) in 281 BCE and his territories became part of the Seleucid Empire.<br>The evidence of Lysimachus’ reign is very limited and, “There is almost no direct information as to Lysimachus’ administration, nor do we know the site of his headquarters before Lysimacheia’s walls rose in 309 BCE.” §REF§ (Lund 1992, 21) H S Lund. 1992. Lysimachus: A study in early Hellenistic kingship. Routledge: London and New York. §REF§ There is however a certain amount of continuity with the Odrysian Kingdom before the Macedonain conquest which may provide some proxy information on Thrace under Lysimachus. In addition, there is some evidence that Thracian rulers continued to rule under or with Lysimachus, although the exact nature of their relationship is not clear. The earlier reigns of Philip II and Alexander, and the subsequent reign of Seleucus, have not been coded on this page as those polities have separate pages. It was only under Lysimachus that the area was ruled relatively independently, and only during this time that the boundaries were extended to include the Konya Plain.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 140, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "‘’‘During the establishment of the Hongwu rites, the worship of gods and spirits was an essential element. The issue, however, was distinguishing between those deities that required worship (正祀), those that were allowed to be worshiped (杂祀), and those that were prohibited from worship (淫祀). Additionally, it had to be determined which deities were only permitted to be worshiped by rulers and not by the common people … In the first year of Hongwu's reign (1368), the provinces and counties were instructed to seek out gods and spirits worthy of worship, including those who had made great contributions to the nation and those who had shown compassion to the people. These deities were recorded in the sacrificial ceremonies, and officials were ordered to offer sacrifices to them during the annual festival. This significantly increased the number of deities that were classified as \"正祀\". However, due to limitations on the number of deities that could be included, many folk deities were still not officially recognized. In the second year, a decree was issued that any gods and spirits who had done good deeds for the people and were highly respected, even if not worthy of official sacrifice, should not have their temples destroyed. This expanded the space for folk beliefs in deities, as any god or ghost could claim to have done good deeds for the people and continue to have a following, even if not officially recognized by the government. In the third year of Hongwu's reign (1370), another decree was issued stating that any temple that was not included in the official sacrifices was a \"淫祠\", and officials were not allowed to offer sacrifices to these temples. Even for the \"淫祀\", however, the government did not take any action to forbid or destroy them. This undoubtedly indicates that folk beliefs belonging to the \"淫祀\" category were widespread, and even local officials often conformed to the local customs and practices by performing ceremonial activities. （神灵祭祀在洪武礼制的确立过程中是不可缺少的内容，问题在于必须分清哪些是必须崇拜（正祀）、哪些是允许崇拜（杂祀）、哪些是不允许崇拜的（淫祀）；而哪些又是只许统治者崇拜，而不许普通人崇拜的……“洪武元年命中书省下郡县，访求应祀神癨。名山大川、圣帝明王、忠臣烈士，凡有功于国家及惠爱在民者，著于祀典，命有司岁时致祭”，这样在实际上就大大增加了应列入“正祀”的神灵。但由于划定了范围，大量民间神癨还是不能得到官方的承认。然而第二年“又诏天下神癨，常有功德于民，事迹昭著者，虽不致祭，禁人毁撤祠宇”，这就大大扩大了民间神灵信仰存在的空间，因为任何神鬼都可以假托灵验，被传说为“有功德于民”，虽不被官方致祭，却可以保留民间的香火。洪武三年再下令说，“天下神祠不应祀典者，即淫祠也，有司毋得致祭”。即使是“淫祠”，也只是禁止官方的礼仪行为，而没有采取禁毁的行动。这无疑表明属于“淫祀”的民间信仰十分普遍，甚至地方官员也往往入乡随俗，对其采取了礼仪性的做法。）”§REF§ Zhao, Shiyu. (2002). Carnival and Daily Life: Temple Fairs and Folk Society since the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Beijing: Sanlian Shudian Press. §REF§ “During the Ming dynasty, an important measure taken by the government to manage the personnel of the mosques was the issuance of official documents called \"zhafu\" to certify their appointments. The process involved the submission of applications by the appointed mosque leaders to the Ministry of Rites and the registration of their credentials. Only after the government had issued the \"zhafu\" could they officially assume their duties. （明朝政权管理清真寺教职人员的一项重要措施，是颁发’札副’(公文)。就是说明代清真寺掌教要向礼部清吏司申请，并履行注册登记手续，在政府下发’札副’后，始可正式履任。）”§REF§Yu Zhengui. Chinese Dynasties and Islam. Yinchuan: Ningxia People's Press, 1996, p. 133. §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Governmental obligations for religious groups to apply for official recognition", "coded_value": "present", "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "CnMing*", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644, "long_name": "Great Ming", "new_name": "cn_ming_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "After 300 years of rule by outsiders, the Ming Dynasty, lasting from the fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries CE, restored Chinese rule to the region. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ The dynasty was founded by a peasant rebel general, Zhu Yuanzhang, later known as Emperor Taizu or the Hongwu Emperor. §REF§ (Brook 1998, 8) Timothy Brook. 1998. <i>The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Taizu destroyed the Yuan capital in Beijing, forced the Mongols to retreat to Mongolia, and founded the Ming capital in Nanjing in 1368 CE. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 191) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The period saw a resurgence of Chinese intellectualism and economic activity, §REF§ (Mote, Twitchett and Fairbank 1988, 1) Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank. 1988 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644</i>, edited by Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, 1-10. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ but Ming emperors often struggled to control their massive empire and they do not tend to number among the Chinese emperors considered 'great' by historians. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 216) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Ming expanded their territory to the southwest during their rule. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 190) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, they never expanded into Mongolia - conflict with the Mongols in the north led the Ming emperors instead to carry out restorations works on the Great Wall. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The Dynasty came to an end in 1644 CE, when the region was re-captured by descendants of Jin Dynasty's Jurchen rulers from Manchuria known as Qing.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Ming emperors were not consistent in their style of rule. While Emperor Taizu ruled as an autocrat, some Ming emperors left the governance of the nation in the hands of officials and eunuchs. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 216) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The emperor presided over the central government in concert with various levels of chief ministers and imperial officials, and the central government structure was replicated on a smaller scale at the provincial level. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ Officials were recruited through an examination system. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The period was marked by increasing openness to non-Confucian ideas and an increase in literacy among the lower levels of society. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Intellectual culture flourished among the elites §REF§ (Mote, Twitchett and Fairbank 1988, 1) Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank. 1988 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644</i>, edited by Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, 1-10. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and the publishing industry expanded greatly in the Lower Yangtze region. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 190) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Novels, including <i>The Romance of the Three Kingdoms</i> and <i>Water Margin</i>, and the play <i>Peony Pavilion</i> were written in the Ming period. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The rapid growth of the international trading system along with foreign desire for Chinese porcelain and silk led to large increases in foreign trade and an influx of silver into the Ming economy. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In the later Ming period, trade conflicts impacted China's foreign silver supply, leading to massive deflation. The Ming government, near bankruptcy, could not fund military campaigns against the rebellion spreading through the nation. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 215) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Ming population was between 60 million and 66.5 million in 1400 CE and 90 million and 110 million in 1600 CE. §REF§ 《明太祖實錄 卷140》 §REF§ §REF§ (Weatherhead East Asian Institute 2008) Weatherhead East Asian Institute. 2008. 'Issues and Trends in China's Demographic History'. Asia for Educators. Columbia University. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-17T15:39:57.138564Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }