Gov Dis Rel Grp Occ Fun List

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            "description": "The following quote suggests that, during the Amarna period, the government hired enforcers to ensure that the subject population followed the new official cult. It seems reasonable to infer that government restrictions at the time extended to employment. “For the offending hieroglyphs of Amun’s name were removed not only from Egypt’s public monuments: as archaeology shows, small, personal objects such as cosmetic pots and scarabs were dealt with in the same ruthless fashion. Evidently fearful of being found in possession of such seditious items, the owners themselves had gouged- or ground-out the offending signs which articulated Amun’s name—even within the tiniest cartouche-ovals containing the old king’s birth-name in the scarab shown here. Displays such as this, of frightened self-censorship and toadying loyalty, are ominous indicators of a general paranoia now gripping the country, attesting eloquently to the fearful character of Akhenaten’s reign as it gradually developed. Not only was the population kept in check by streets filled with pharaoh’s bully-boys—Nubians and Asiatics armed with clubs, seen everywhere in the reliefs of the period—it seems the population now had to contend with the danger of malicious informers.” §REF§ (Reeves 2004, 7) Reeves, Nicholas. 2004. ‘Who was Akhenaten?’. Fitzwilliam Museum Lecture. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DABD2XP5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DABD2XP5 </b></a> §REF§",
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                "id": 198,
                "name": "EgNKThu",
                "start_year": -1550,
                "end_year": -1293,
                "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Thutmosid Period",
                "new_name": "eg_new_k_1",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "During the New Kingdom, the Egyptian king acquired the title of 'pharaoh', meaning 'great house'. In the Thutmosid Period, or Eighteenth Dynasty (1550-1293 BCE), the pharaohs turned the Egyptian 'home' into a great empire stretching from Kush in northern Sudan (conquered by Thutmose I) to the south to Palestine and Syria in the northeast (taken by Thutmose III). §REF§ (Sherif 1981, 265) N. M. Sherif. 1981. 'Nubia before Napata (-3100 to -750)', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa</i>, edited by G. Mokhtar, 245-77. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§  §REF§ (Dupuy and Dupuy 2007, 5) R. Ernest Dupuy and Trevor N. Dupuy. 2007. <i>The Collins Encyclopedia of Military History: From 3500 B.C. to the Present</i>. 4th ed. London: BCA. §REF§  For the first time, the capital of a great Egyptian state was in Upper Egypt, at Thebes (although in 1373 BCE Akhenaten briefly had the capital moved to El Amarna in Middle Egypt).<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The pharaoh, a living god-king, was also the chief priest, highest judge and top military commander; he usually fought in battle, as Thutmose III apparently did at the famous Bronze Age battle of Megiddo in the 15th century BCE. §REF§ (Morenz and Popko 2010, 111) Ludwig D. Morenz and Lutz Popko. 2010. 'The Second Intermediate Period and the New Kingdom', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 101-19. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  The professional army was augmented by troops from conquered places such as Nubia and Libya. §REF§ (Spalinger 2005, 6-7) Anthony J. Spalinger. 2005. <i>War in Ancient Egypt: The New Kingdom</i>. Malden, MA: Blackwell. §REF§ <br>During the New Kingdom, labyrinthine networks of imperial power and wage-earning agents we know as scribes §REF§ (Van Dijk 2000, 298-99) Jacobus Van Dijk. 2003. 'The Amarna Period and the Later New Kingdom', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 265-307. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  were overseen by two viziers: one for the north and one for the south of Egypt. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 208) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The Egyptian vizier was the second-highest judge; §REF§ (Brewer and Teeter 1999, 73) Douglas J. Brewer and Emily Teeter. 1999. <i>Egypt and the Egyptians</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  he supervised the activities of the state bureaucracy and served as a representative of the pharaoh's interests. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 180) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  Most of the viziers' duties seem to have been judicial, involving dispute settlement, answering petitions, and authorizing transfers of property. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 180) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  For most of the two to three million people who occupied New Kingdom Egypt, however, the law was usually administered at the local level, §REF§ (Brewer and Teeter 1999, 73) Douglas J. Brewer and Emily Teeter. 1999. <i>Egypt and the Egyptians</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  under chiefs of towns (the capitals of nomes) and mayors of villages.<br>The resources commanded by the New Kingdom Egyptian state enabled the pharaohs to carry out grand architectural and tomb-building projects. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 182) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  The most prolific builder of the Thutmosid Period was a female pharaoh called Hatshepsut. §REF§ (Bryan 2000, 229) Betsy M. Bryan. 2000. 'The 18th Dynasty before The Amarna Period (c. 1550-1352 BC)' in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 207-64. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  At Deir el-Medina, in the Valley of the Kings, opposite Thebes, a workers' village was created at the start of the Eighteenth Dynasty to house craftsmen dedicated to building royal tombs. §REF§ (Bryan 2000, 213) Betsy M. Bryan. 2000. 'The 18th Dynasty before The Amarna Period (c. 1550-1352 BC)' in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 207-64. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  The community was managed by a palace scribe appointed by the vizier. The scribe oversaw supervisors, who managed two teams of five workers on ten-day shifts. §REF§ (Ziskind and Halioua 2007) Bernard Ziskind and Bruno Halioua. 2007. 'Occupational Medicine in Ancient Egypt'. <i>Medical Hypotheses</i> 69 (4): 942-45. §REF§  In the village, oracle statues attended by priests served as the 'highest local voice of authority'. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 235) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>Although not a typical town, documents written by skilled workers at Deir el-Medina reveal that writing was not confined to the elite, but had become important in wider society. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 156) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  Major temples across Egypt included libraries and archives, most likely managed by scribes educated in local schools. §REF§ (Lazaridis 2016) Nikolaos Lazaridis. 2016. 'Education and Apprenticeship', in <i>UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology</i>. Accessible online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://uee.cdh.ucla.edu/articles/education_and_apprenticeship/?x=87&amp;y=5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://uee.cdh.ucla.edu/articles/education_and_apprenticeship/?x=87&amp;y=5</a>. §REF§  Documents attesting to the sophistication of this Late Bronze Age state include government archives, wills, title deeds, census lists, conscription lists, orders, memos, tax lists, letters, journals, inventories, regulations, and transcripts of trials. §REF§ (Brewer and Teeter 1999, 73) Douglas J. Brewer and Emily Teeter. 1999. <i>Egypt and the Egyptians</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ",
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            "year_from": 300,
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            "description": "The following quote suggests that Jains were persecuted for roughly 200 years. “Jainism declined steeply in Tamil country from about the end of the 6th century A.D. when there was a tremendous upsurge of Saiva and Vaisnava sects revitalized by the Bhakti movement led by the Nayanmars and Alvars. The Tamil Jains were persecuted during this period. However, the persecution, uncharacteristic of Indian polity, did not last too long and the rulers resumed grants to the Jaina monasteries (palli) from about the end of the 8th century A.D. as attested by epigraphical  evidence from the Pallava and Pantiya regions.” §REF§ (Umamaheshwari 2018, 48) Umamaheshwari, R. 2018. Reading History with the Tamil Jainas: A Study on Identity, Memory and Marginalisation. New Delhi: Springer. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W5X9TKB9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: W5X9TKB9 </b></a> §REF§ “In the latter half of the seventh century A.D. there occurred, however, a terrible persecution of Jainism in Southern India. King Kuna Sundara or Neumaran Pandya, who had brought up as a Jaina, became a pupil of saint Tirujnana Sumbandar and accepted the Saiva faith. Displaying the zeal of a convert he persecuted with savage cruelty his late co-religionists of whom no fewer than eight thousand were put to death. Mehendra Varman of the Pallava dynasty, whose rule extended to Trichinopoly, was originally a Jaina. Through the influence of a Tamil saint he accepted Saivism, and destroyed the large Jaina monastery of Pataliputtriam in South Arcot at about 610 A.D. §REF§ (Vidyabhusana 1988, 222-223) Vidyabhusana, Satis Chandra. 1988. A History of Indian Logic: Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern Schools. New Dehli: Motilal Bandrsidass. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4R2K2KRK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4R2K2KRK </b></a> §REF§",
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                "id": 702,
                "name": "in_pallava_emp_2",
                "start_year": 300,
                "end_year": 890,
                "long_name": "Late Pallava Empire",
                "new_name": "in_pallava_emp_2",
                "polity_tag": "POL_SA_SI",
                "general_description": "The Pallava Empire originated in the early 4th century CE in the northern Tamil Nadu region§REF§ (Bush Trevino 2012, 46) Bush Travino, Macella. 2012. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Vol.4 Edited by Carolyn M. Elliot. Los Angeles: Sage. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4RPCX448/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4RPCX448/collection</a>  §REF§The Pallavan capital was at Kanchi, modern-day Kanchipuram. The Pallava rulers were major beneifactors of education and gave land grants for schools. The Pallava dynasties also contributed to art and architecture by commissioning temples and shrines, particularly in the port city of Mamallapuram. §REF§ (Kamlesh 2010, 569) Kamelsh, Kapur. 2010. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In History of Ancient India: Portraits of a Nation. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection</a>  §REF§ In the late 9th century, the Pallava Empire was succeeded by the Chola Empire. §REF§ (Kamlesh 2010, 566) Kamelsh, Kapur. 2010. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In History of Ancient India: Portraits of a Nation. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection</a>  §REF§",
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            "id": 125,
            "year_from": 386,
            "year_to": 446,
            "description": "\"The Northern Wei forces under Taiwudi's command reached Chang'an during the second month of 446. In the course of the campaign, some soldiers, grazing their horses in fields belonging to a Buddhist monastery (the source fails to name it), discovered that it was full of weapons. This proved to be the spark that ignited one of China's largest and most devastating government suppressions of Buddhism. [...] An official named Cui Hao Sia (fl. 438-448), who was a patron of Taoism, then proceeded to recommend the total eradication of Buddhism, and one month later Taiwudi issued an edict designed to implement just such a policy. The emperor's edict was implemented with brutal efficiency, particularly in and around Chang'an. Sources like Hui-jiao's (497-554) Biographies of Eminent Monks graphically describe how local monasteries were razed to the ground. Monks were ordered to return to lay life, and those who refused were summarily executed.\"§REF§(Shufen 2002: 1-2) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/87H9K47B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 87H9K47B </b></a>§REF§ \"The ascendance of the Daoists was short - lived, as Kou ’ s death in 448 was soon followed by the execution in 450 of the prime minister Cui Hao — who had introduced Kou Qianzhi at court and who played a major part in establishing the Daoist state — and by emperor Taiwu ’ s death in 452. Later northern emperors reverted to more inclusive policies, but all followed Taiwu ’ s example and “ received registers ” during their reigns.\" §REF§(Raz 2012: 72) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QMGMQBVN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QMGMQBVN </b></a>§REF§ \"Influenced in part by the Daoist Kou Qianzhi and the official Cui Hao, Emperor Taiwu ordered the first large-scale suppression of Buddhism in China. In 444 and 446, imperial edicts ordered Buddhist images destroyed, scriptures burnt, and monks defrocked or executed.\"§REF§(Kieschnick 2019: 536) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PF3UFQD4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PF3UFQD4 </b></a>§REF§",
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            "polity": {
                "id": 258,
                "name": "CnNWei*",
                "start_year": 386,
                "end_year": 534,
                "long_name": "Northern Wei",
                "new_name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The Northern Wei dynasty (Tuoba or Bei Wei) unified northern China during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. §REF§  (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a>  §REF§  Before unification under the Northern Wei, the northern region was ruled by the Sixteen Barbarian States that had risen up when the Western Jin fled to the south. §REF§  (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a>  §REF§  The Northern Wei conquered Northern Yan and Northern Liang to unify the north. §REF§  (Xiong 2009, 384) Xiong, V C. 2009. Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Scarecrow Press, Inc., Plymouth. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong</a>.  §REF§  During Northern Wei rule, Tuoba continued to expand its territory. By 439 CE the dynasty controlled Henan, Hebei, and parts of Shaanxi, Manchuria, Gansu, and Sichuan. §REF§  “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica.  <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a>  §REF§  At its peak the territory of the Northern Wei expanded from the Tarim Basin to the Yellow Sea, and from the northern steppe to edge of territory of the Southern dynasties. §REF§  (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a>  §REF§  In 500 CE, the Northern Wei territory encompassed 1.7 million square kilometers. §REF§ (Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet) §REF§ <br>The rulers of the Northern Wei belonged to the Tuoba tribe of the Xianbei northern steppe federation. §REF§  (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a>  §REF§  The Tuoba language was close to Turkish, and the non-Han Chinese rulers were first seen as foreign invaders. §REF§  “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica.  <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a>  §REF§  In the late 400s the Tuoba Sinicized their customs, language, and government, and moved their capital to Luoyang. §REF§  (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a>  §REF§  Buddhism was upheld as a state religion for most of the Northern Wei. The Buddhist caves of Yungang and Longmen were constructed during the period. §REF§  (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a>  §REF§  In the early 500s, Luoyang had over one thousand monasteries and number of mansions and large palaces. §REF§  (Ebrey 1996, 91) Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. 1996.  The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8</a>  §REF§ <br>The fall of the Northern Wei was due to a civil war caused by rebellions in garrisons in the northern frontier §REF§  (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a>  §REF§  The rival army factions spilt the dynasty into Eastern and Western Wei in 535 CE. §REF§  (Xiong 2009, 384) Xiong, V C. 2009. Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Scarecrow Press, Inc., Plymouth. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong</a>.  §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In the Northern Dynasties, nobles and landowners often had vesting holdings with dependent servants and slaves who did not pay taxes. §REF§  (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a>  §REF§  The Northern Wei government attempted to break up these large holdings to reduce the power of provincial nobles. The government deported over 400,000 dependent peasants to unused land near the first capital of Pingcheng.  §REF§  “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica.  <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a>  §REF§  The Northern Wei also instituted an equal-fields system in which the state owned all land and individuals were given certain allotments for life. §REF§  (Ebrey 1996, 91) Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. 1996.  The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8</a>  §REF§ <br>In the late 400s, the Northern Wei moved the capital to Luoyang and began to create a more Chinese-style state. §REF§  (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a>  §REF§  The Tuoba relied on Chinese civil servants to assist with governance. §REF§  (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a>  §REF§ <br>The population of the Northern Wei dynasty was 32 million in 500 CE. §REF§  (Graff 2002, 127)Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA</a>  §REF§  The second Wei capital of Luoyang had a population of 600,000 at its peak. §REF§  (Graff 2002, 98)Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA</a>  §REF§",
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            "description": "\"The Northern Wei forces under Taiwudi's command reached Chang'an during the second month of 446. In the course of the campaign, some soldiers, grazing their horses in fields belonging to a Buddhist monastery (the source fails to name it), discovered that it was full of weapons. This proved to be the spark that ignited one of China's largest and most devastating government suppressions of Buddhism. [...] An official named Cui Hao Sia (fl. 438-448), who was a patron of Taoism, then proceeded to recommend the total eradication of Buddhism, and one month later Taiwudi issued an edict designed to implement just such a policy. The emperor's edict was implemented with brutal efficiency, particularly in and around Chang'an. Sources like Hui-jiao's (497-554) Biographies of Eminent Monks graphically describe how local monasteries were razed to the ground. Monks were ordered to return to lay life, and those who refused were summarily executed.\"§REF§(Shufen 2002: 1-2) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/87H9K47B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 87H9K47B </b></a>§REF§ \"The ascendance of the Daoists was short - lived, as Kou ’ s death in 448 was soon followed by the execution in 450 of the prime minister Cui Hao — who had introduced Kou Qianzhi at court and who played a major part in establishing the Daoist state — and by emperor Taiwu ’ s death in 452. Later northern emperors reverted to more inclusive policies, but all followed Taiwu ’ s example and “ received registers ” during their reigns.\" §REF§(Raz 2012: 72) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QMGMQBVN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QMGMQBVN </b></a>§REF§ \"Influenced in part by the Daoist Kou Qianzhi and the official Cui Hao, Emperor Taiwu ordered the first large-scale suppression of Buddhism in China. In 444 and 446, imperial edicts ordered Buddhist images destroyed, scriptures burnt, and monks defrocked or executed.\"§REF§(Kieschnick 2019: 536) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PF3UFQD4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PF3UFQD4 </b></a>§REF§",
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                "id": 258,
                "name": "CnNWei*",
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                "long_name": "Northern Wei",
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                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The Northern Wei dynasty (Tuoba or Bei Wei) unified northern China during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. §REF§  (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a>  §REF§  Before unification under the Northern Wei, the northern region was ruled by the Sixteen Barbarian States that had risen up when the Western Jin fled to the south. §REF§  (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a>  §REF§  The Northern Wei conquered Northern Yan and Northern Liang to unify the north. §REF§  (Xiong 2009, 384) Xiong, V C. 2009. Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Scarecrow Press, Inc., Plymouth. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong</a>.  §REF§  During Northern Wei rule, Tuoba continued to expand its territory. By 439 CE the dynasty controlled Henan, Hebei, and parts of Shaanxi, Manchuria, Gansu, and Sichuan. §REF§  “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica.  <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a>  §REF§  At its peak the territory of the Northern Wei expanded from the Tarim Basin to the Yellow Sea, and from the northern steppe to edge of territory of the Southern dynasties. §REF§  (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a>  §REF§  In 500 CE, the Northern Wei territory encompassed 1.7 million square kilometers. §REF§ (Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet) §REF§ <br>The rulers of the Northern Wei belonged to the Tuoba tribe of the Xianbei northern steppe federation. §REF§  (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a>  §REF§  The Tuoba language was close to Turkish, and the non-Han Chinese rulers were first seen as foreign invaders. §REF§  “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica.  <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a>  §REF§  In the late 400s the Tuoba Sinicized their customs, language, and government, and moved their capital to Luoyang. §REF§  (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a>  §REF§  Buddhism was upheld as a state religion for most of the Northern Wei. The Buddhist caves of Yungang and Longmen were constructed during the period. §REF§  (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a>  §REF§  In the early 500s, Luoyang had over one thousand monasteries and number of mansions and large palaces. §REF§  (Ebrey 1996, 91) Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. 1996.  The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8</a>  §REF§ <br>The fall of the Northern Wei was due to a civil war caused by rebellions in garrisons in the northern frontier §REF§  (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a>  §REF§  The rival army factions spilt the dynasty into Eastern and Western Wei in 535 CE. §REF§  (Xiong 2009, 384) Xiong, V C. 2009. Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Scarecrow Press, Inc., Plymouth. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong</a>.  §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In the Northern Dynasties, nobles and landowners often had vesting holdings with dependent servants and slaves who did not pay taxes. §REF§  (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a>  §REF§  The Northern Wei government attempted to break up these large holdings to reduce the power of provincial nobles. The government deported over 400,000 dependent peasants to unused land near the first capital of Pingcheng.  §REF§  “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica.  <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a>  §REF§  The Northern Wei also instituted an equal-fields system in which the state owned all land and individuals were given certain allotments for life. §REF§  (Ebrey 1996, 91) Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. 1996.  The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8</a>  §REF§ <br>In the late 400s, the Northern Wei moved the capital to Luoyang and began to create a more Chinese-style state. §REF§  (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a>  §REF§  The Tuoba relied on Chinese civil servants to assist with governance. §REF§  (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a>  §REF§ <br>The population of the Northern Wei dynasty was 32 million in 500 CE. §REF§  (Graff 2002, 127)Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA</a>  §REF§  The second Wei capital of Luoyang had a population of 600,000 at its peak. §REF§  (Graff 2002, 98)Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA</a>  §REF§",
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            "description": "\"The Northern Wei forces under Taiwudi's command reached Chang'an during the second month of 446. In the course of the campaign, some soldiers, grazing their horses in fields belonging to a Buddhist monastery (the source fails to name it), discovered that it was full of weapons. This proved to be the spark that ignited one of China's largest and most devastating government suppressions of Buddhism. [...] An official named Cui Hao Sia (fl. 438-448), who was a patron of Taoism, then proceeded to recommend the total eradication of Buddhism, and one month later Taiwudi issued an edict designed to implement just such a policy. The emperor's edict was implemented with brutal efficiency, particularly in and around Chang'an. Sources like Hui-jiao's (497-554) Biographies of Eminent Monks graphically describe how local monasteries were razed to the ground. Monks were ordered to return to lay life, and those who refused were summarily executed.\"§REF§(Shufen 2002: 1-2) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/87H9K47B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 87H9K47B </b></a>§REF§ \"The ascendance of the Daoists was short - lived, as Kou ’ s death in 448 was soon followed by the execution in 450 of the prime minister Cui Hao — who had introduced Kou Qianzhi at court and who played a major part in establishing the Daoist state — and by emperor Taiwu ’ s death in 452. Later northern emperors reverted to more inclusive policies, but all followed Taiwu ’ s example and “ received registers ” during their reigns.\" §REF§(Raz 2012: 72) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QMGMQBVN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QMGMQBVN </b></a>§REF§ \"Influenced in part by the Daoist Kou Qianzhi and the official Cui Hao, Emperor Taiwu ordered the first large-scale suppression of Buddhism in China. In 444 and 446, imperial edicts ordered Buddhist images destroyed, scriptures burnt, and monks defrocked or executed.\"§REF§(Kieschnick 2019: 536) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PF3UFQD4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PF3UFQD4 </b></a>§REF§",
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                "general_description": "The Northern Wei dynasty (Tuoba or Bei Wei) unified northern China during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. §REF§  (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a>  §REF§  Before unification under the Northern Wei, the northern region was ruled by the Sixteen Barbarian States that had risen up when the Western Jin fled to the south. §REF§  (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a>  §REF§  The Northern Wei conquered Northern Yan and Northern Liang to unify the north. §REF§  (Xiong 2009, 384) Xiong, V C. 2009. Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Scarecrow Press, Inc., Plymouth. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong</a>.  §REF§  During Northern Wei rule, Tuoba continued to expand its territory. By 439 CE the dynasty controlled Henan, Hebei, and parts of Shaanxi, Manchuria, Gansu, and Sichuan. §REF§  “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica.  <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a>  §REF§  At its peak the territory of the Northern Wei expanded from the Tarim Basin to the Yellow Sea, and from the northern steppe to edge of territory of the Southern dynasties. §REF§  (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a>  §REF§  In 500 CE, the Northern Wei territory encompassed 1.7 million square kilometers. §REF§ (Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet) §REF§ <br>The rulers of the Northern Wei belonged to the Tuoba tribe of the Xianbei northern steppe federation. §REF§  (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a>  §REF§  The Tuoba language was close to Turkish, and the non-Han Chinese rulers were first seen as foreign invaders. §REF§  “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica.  <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a>  §REF§  In the late 400s the Tuoba Sinicized their customs, language, and government, and moved their capital to Luoyang. §REF§  (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a>  §REF§  Buddhism was upheld as a state religion for most of the Northern Wei. The Buddhist caves of Yungang and Longmen were constructed during the period. §REF§  (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a>  §REF§  In the early 500s, Luoyang had over one thousand monasteries and number of mansions and large palaces. §REF§  (Ebrey 1996, 91) Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. 1996.  The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8</a>  §REF§ <br>The fall of the Northern Wei was due to a civil war caused by rebellions in garrisons in the northern frontier §REF§  (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a>  §REF§  The rival army factions spilt the dynasty into Eastern and Western Wei in 535 CE. §REF§  (Xiong 2009, 384) Xiong, V C. 2009. Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Scarecrow Press, Inc., Plymouth. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong</a>.  §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In the Northern Dynasties, nobles and landowners often had vesting holdings with dependent servants and slaves who did not pay taxes. §REF§  (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a>  §REF§  The Northern Wei government attempted to break up these large holdings to reduce the power of provincial nobles. The government deported over 400,000 dependent peasants to unused land near the first capital of Pingcheng.  §REF§  “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica.  <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a>  §REF§  The Northern Wei also instituted an equal-fields system in which the state owned all land and individuals were given certain allotments for life. §REF§  (Ebrey 1996, 91) Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. 1996.  The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8</a>  §REF§ <br>In the late 400s, the Northern Wei moved the capital to Luoyang and began to create a more Chinese-style state. §REF§  (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a>  §REF§  The Tuoba relied on Chinese civil servants to assist with governance. §REF§  (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a>  §REF§ <br>The population of the Northern Wei dynasty was 32 million in 500 CE. §REF§  (Graff 2002, 127)Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA</a>  §REF§  The second Wei capital of Luoyang had a population of 600,000 at its peak. §REF§  (Graff 2002, 98)Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA</a>  §REF§",
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        {
            "id": 231,
            "year_from": 600,
            "year_to": 799,
            "description": "The following quote suggests that Jains were persecuted for roughly 200 years. “Jainism declined steeply in Tamil country from about the end of the 6th century A.D. when there was a tremendous upsurge of Saiva and Vaisnava sects revitalized by the Bhakti movement led by the Nayanmars and Alvars. The Tamil Jains were persecuted during this period. However, the persecution, uncharacteristic of Indian polity, did not last too long and the rulers resumed grants to the Jaina monasteries (palli) from about the end of the 8th century A.D. as attested by epigraphical  evidence from the Pallava and Pantiya regions.” §REF§ (Umamaheshwari 2018, 48) Umamaheshwari, R. 2018. Reading History with the Tamil Jainas: A Study on Identity, Memory and Marginalisation. New Delhi: Springer. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W5X9TKB9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: W5X9TKB9 </b></a> §REF§ “In the latter half of the seventh century A.D. there occurred, however, a terrible persecution of Jainism in Southern India. King Kuna Sundara or Neumaran Pandya, who had brought up as a Jaina, became a pupil of saint Tirujnana Sumbandar and accepted the Saiva faith. Displaying the zeal of a convert he persecuted with savage cruelty his late co-religionists of whom no fewer than eight thousand were put to death. Mehendra Varman of the Pallava dynasty, whose rule extended to Trichinopoly, was originally a Jaina. Through the influence of a Tamil saint he accepted Saivism, and destroyed the large Jaina monastery of Pataliputtriam in South Arcot at about 610 A.D. §REF§ (Vidyabhusana 1988, 222-223) Vidyabhusana, Satis Chandra. 1988. A History of Indian Logic: Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern Schools. New Dehli: Motilal Bandrsidass. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4R2K2KRK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4R2K2KRK </b></a> §REF§",
            "note": null,
            "finalized": false,
            "created_date": null,
            "modified_date": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "expert_reviewed": false,
            "drb_reviewed": null,
            "name": "Government discrimination against religious groups taking up certain occupations or functions",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "polity": {
                "id": 702,
                "name": "in_pallava_emp_2",
                "start_year": 300,
                "end_year": 890,
                "long_name": "Late Pallava Empire",
                "new_name": "in_pallava_emp_2",
                "polity_tag": "POL_SA_SI",
                "general_description": "The Pallava Empire originated in the early 4th century CE in the northern Tamil Nadu region§REF§ (Bush Trevino 2012, 46) Bush Travino, Macella. 2012. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Vol.4 Edited by Carolyn M. Elliot. Los Angeles: Sage. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4RPCX448/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4RPCX448/collection</a>  §REF§The Pallavan capital was at Kanchi, modern-day Kanchipuram. The Pallava rulers were major beneifactors of education and gave land grants for schools. The Pallava dynasties also contributed to art and architecture by commissioning temples and shrines, particularly in the port city of Mamallapuram. §REF§ (Kamlesh 2010, 569) Kamelsh, Kapur. 2010. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In History of Ancient India: Portraits of a Nation. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection</a>  §REF§ In the late 9th century, the Pallava Empire was succeeded by the Chola Empire. §REF§ (Kamlesh 2010, 566) Kamelsh, Kapur. 2010. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In History of Ancient India: Portraits of a Nation. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection</a>  §REF§",
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                "home_seshat_region": {
                    "id": 40,
                    "name": "Southern South Asia",
                    "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka",
                    "mac_region": {
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                        "name": "South Asia"
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            "comment": null,
            "private_comment": {
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        {
            "id": 225,
            "year_from": 661,
            "year_to": 740,
            "description": "“By 741 C.E. the Umayyads felt that they no longer needed any Zoroastrians in the government, so they decreed that non-Muslims be excluded from such positions. This decree, of course, led to further conversions by government officials who did not wish to lose their livelihoods.” §REF§(Kepler 2018, 99) Kepler, Travis. 2018. ‘Zoroastrians: Becoming a Minority in their Homeland’. Danesh: The OU Undergraduate Journal of Iranian Studies. Vol.3. Pp. 95-109. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KXGRVJTV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KXGRVJTV </b></a>§REF§“A similar situation surrounds another measure attributed to Umar II, and one most relevant to the present discussion: his edict barring non-Muslims from employment in the Umayyad government and imposing restrictive dress on them (the so-called ghiyar).” §REF§ (Donner 2020, 31) Donner, Fred. 2020. ‘Living together: social perceptions and changing interactions of Arabian Believers and other religious communities during the Umayyad Period’. In The Umayyad World. Edited by Andrew Marsham. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8QC56ACW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8QC56ACW </b></a> §REF§",
            "note": null,
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            "created_date": null,
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            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "expert_reviewed": false,
            "drb_reviewed": null,
            "name": "Government discrimination against religious groups taking up certain occupations or functions",
            "coded_value": "absent",
            "polity": {
                "id": 131,
                "name": "SyCalUm",
                "start_year": 661,
                "end_year": 750,
                "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate",
                "new_name": "sy_umayyad_cal",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The Umayyad Caliphate was formed in 661 CE by Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan following the assassination of Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. §REF§ (Madelung 1997, 108, 297) Wilferd Madelung. 1997. <i>The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  It ended with the defeat of the Umayyads by the Abbasids in the Third Fitna (a series of Muslim civil wars) in 750 CE. §REF§ (Esposito, ed. 2003, 691) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  The Ummayad Caliphs, based in Damascus in Syria, ruled a large territory stretching from the Near East all the way through North Africa and into southern Spain.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The caliph was a tribal patriarch and head of the <i>ummah</i>, the entire Islamic community. The central government of the Umayyad Caliphate was almost non-existent at the start of the period but entered a more developed stage in the mid-8th century. One of the reasons for this lack of central administration was the exceptionally successful Arab-Muslim army combined with the existence of functioning bureaucracies in the former Sassanid and Byzantine domains, which were left largely intact. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 55) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Thus, under Muawiya - the first Ummayad Caliph - the  ruler was 'surrounded by Arab chiefs' with no other central administration. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 80-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  At Damascus, an administrative system staffed by permanent officials §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 36-38) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  dates from the reigns of al-Malik (685-705 CE) and al-Walid (705-715 CE). §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 80-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The caliphs, from their residence in Damascus (661-744 CE) and then Harran (744-750 CE), employed a chamberlain to manage visitors and regulate daily affairs, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 80-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  and maintained an office of the chancery §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 50-51) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  with officials called <i>diwans</i> to manage the collection of taxes and payment of salaries. §REF§ (Kennedy 2001, 88) Hugh N. Kennedy. 2001. <i>The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  In order to impose their authority over the provinces, which had a combined population of up to 33 million, §REF§ (Blankinship 1994, 37-38) Khalid Y. Blankinship. 1994. <i>The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd Al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads</i>. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. §REF§  the Umayyads typically sent civil and military governors (<i>amel</i> and <i>amir</i>). §REF§ (Lambton 2011) Ann K. S. Lambton. 2011. 'Cities iii: Administration and Social Organization', in <i>Encyclopedia Iranica</i> V/6, 607-23; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a> (accessed 2 April 2017). §REF§  In the regions they conquered, the Ummayads had no choice but to use the resident staff because institutions to train and educate bureaucrats had not yet developed in the Arab Muslim context. In Egypt, for the first century of Umayyad rule, 'all the provincial officials were Christians'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 17) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  The Umayyad Caliphate was thus an exceptionally multicultural empire with a diverse governmental and cultural heritage.<br>This diversity was reflected in the number of languages spoken across the territory conquered by Muslims: from Basque in the far west to Berber and African Romance languages along the southern shores of the Mediterranean, and Aramaic, Turkic, Hebrew, Armenian and Kurdish in the east. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 126) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The use of Arabic as an administrative language began in Iraq in 697 CE, but spread outwards to Syria, Egypt and, by 700 CE, Khurasan in modern-day northeastern Iran. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 36-38) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  In Egypt, the adoption of Arabic as the language of local government took over 100 years; initially, almost all papyruses were written in Greek. The first known bilingual Greek-Arabic document dates to 643 CE, and the last to 719. The earliest known Egyptian document written exclusively in Arabic is dated to 709 CE, and Greek was still being used up until 780 CE. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 23) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§",
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            "id": 226,
            "year_from": 741,
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            "description": "“By 741 C.E. the Umayyads felt that they no longer needed any Zoroastrians in the government, so they decreed that non-Muslims be excluded from such positions. This decree, of course, led to further conversions by government officials who did not wish to lose their livelihoods.” §REF§(Kepler 2018, 99) Kepler, Travis. 2018. ‘Zoroastrians: Becoming a Minority in their Homeland’. Danesh: The OU Undergraduate Journal of Iranian Studies. Vol.3. Pp. 95-109. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KXGRVJTV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KXGRVJTV </b></a>§REF§“A similar situation surrounds another measure attributed to Umar II, and one most relevant to the present discussion: his edict barring non-Muslims from employment in the Umayyad government and imposing restrictive dress on them (the so-called ghiyar).” §REF§ (Donner 2020, 31) Donner, Fred. 2020. ‘Living together: social perceptions and changing interactions of Arabian Believers and other religious communities during the Umayyad Period’. In The Umayyad World. Edited by Andrew Marsham. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8QC56ACW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8QC56ACW </b></a> §REF§",
            "note": null,
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            "name": "Government discrimination against religious groups taking up certain occupations or functions",
            "coded_value": "present",
            "polity": {
                "id": 131,
                "name": "SyCalUm",
                "start_year": 661,
                "end_year": 750,
                "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate",
                "new_name": "sy_umayyad_cal",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The Umayyad Caliphate was formed in 661 CE by Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan following the assassination of Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. §REF§ (Madelung 1997, 108, 297) Wilferd Madelung. 1997. <i>The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  It ended with the defeat of the Umayyads by the Abbasids in the Third Fitna (a series of Muslim civil wars) in 750 CE. §REF§ (Esposito, ed. 2003, 691) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  The Ummayad Caliphs, based in Damascus in Syria, ruled a large territory stretching from the Near East all the way through North Africa and into southern Spain.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The caliph was a tribal patriarch and head of the <i>ummah</i>, the entire Islamic community. The central government of the Umayyad Caliphate was almost non-existent at the start of the period but entered a more developed stage in the mid-8th century. One of the reasons for this lack of central administration was the exceptionally successful Arab-Muslim army combined with the existence of functioning bureaucracies in the former Sassanid and Byzantine domains, which were left largely intact. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 55) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Thus, under Muawiya - the first Ummayad Caliph - the  ruler was 'surrounded by Arab chiefs' with no other central administration. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 80-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  At Damascus, an administrative system staffed by permanent officials §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 36-38) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  dates from the reigns of al-Malik (685-705 CE) and al-Walid (705-715 CE). §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 80-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The caliphs, from their residence in Damascus (661-744 CE) and then Harran (744-750 CE), employed a chamberlain to manage visitors and regulate daily affairs, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 80-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  and maintained an office of the chancery §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 50-51) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  with officials called <i>diwans</i> to manage the collection of taxes and payment of salaries. §REF§ (Kennedy 2001, 88) Hugh N. Kennedy. 2001. <i>The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  In order to impose their authority over the provinces, which had a combined population of up to 33 million, §REF§ (Blankinship 1994, 37-38) Khalid Y. Blankinship. 1994. <i>The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd Al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads</i>. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. §REF§  the Umayyads typically sent civil and military governors (<i>amel</i> and <i>amir</i>). §REF§ (Lambton 2011) Ann K. S. Lambton. 2011. 'Cities iii: Administration and Social Organization', in <i>Encyclopedia Iranica</i> V/6, 607-23; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a> (accessed 2 April 2017). §REF§  In the regions they conquered, the Ummayads had no choice but to use the resident staff because institutions to train and educate bureaucrats had not yet developed in the Arab Muslim context. In Egypt, for the first century of Umayyad rule, 'all the provincial officials were Christians'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 17) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  The Umayyad Caliphate was thus an exceptionally multicultural empire with a diverse governmental and cultural heritage.<br>This diversity was reflected in the number of languages spoken across the territory conquered by Muslims: from Basque in the far west to Berber and African Romance languages along the southern shores of the Mediterranean, and Aramaic, Turkic, Hebrew, Armenian and Kurdish in the east. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 126) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The use of Arabic as an administrative language began in Iraq in 697 CE, but spread outwards to Syria, Egypt and, by 700 CE, Khurasan in modern-day northeastern Iran. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 36-38) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  In Egypt, the adoption of Arabic as the language of local government took over 100 years; initially, almost all papyruses were written in Greek. The first known bilingual Greek-Arabic document dates to 643 CE, and the last to 719. The earliest known Egyptian document written exclusively in Arabic is dated to 709 CE, and Greek was still being used up until 780 CE. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 23) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§",
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            "description": "The following quote suggests that Jains were persecuted for roughly 200 years. “Jainism declined steeply in Tamil country from about the end of the 6th century A.D. when there was a tremendous upsurge of Saiva and Vaisnava sects revitalized by the Bhakti movement led by the Nayanmars and Alvars. The Tamil Jains were persecuted during this period. However, the persecution, uncharacteristic of Indian polity, did not last too long and the rulers resumed grants to the Jaina monasteries (palli) from about the end of the 8th century A.D. as attested by epigraphical  evidence from the Pallava and Pantiya regions.” §REF§ (Umamaheshwari 2018, 48) Umamaheshwari, R. 2018. Reading History with the Tamil Jainas: A Study on Identity, Memory and Marginalisation. New Delhi: Springer. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W5X9TKB9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: W5X9TKB9 </b></a> §REF§ “In the latter half of the seventh century A.D. there occurred, however, a terrible persecution of Jainism in Southern India. King Kuna Sundara or Neumaran Pandya, who had brought up as a Jaina, became a pupil of saint Tirujnana Sumbandar and accepted the Saiva faith. Displaying the zeal of a convert he persecuted with savage cruelty his late co-religionists of whom no fewer than eight thousand were put to death. Mehendra Varman of the Pallava dynasty, whose rule extended to Trichinopoly, was originally a Jaina. Through the influence of a Tamil saint he accepted Saivism, and destroyed the large Jaina monastery of Pataliputtriam in South Arcot at about 610 A.D. §REF§ (Vidyabhusana 1988, 222-223) Vidyabhusana, Satis Chandra. 1988. A History of Indian Logic: Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern Schools. New Dehli: Motilal Bandrsidass. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4R2K2KRK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4R2K2KRK </b></a> §REF§",
            "note": null,
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            "coded_value": "absent",
            "polity": {
                "id": 702,
                "name": "in_pallava_emp_2",
                "start_year": 300,
                "end_year": 890,
                "long_name": "Late Pallava Empire",
                "new_name": "in_pallava_emp_2",
                "polity_tag": "POL_SA_SI",
                "general_description": "The Pallava Empire originated in the early 4th century CE in the northern Tamil Nadu region§REF§ (Bush Trevino 2012, 46) Bush Travino, Macella. 2012. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Vol.4 Edited by Carolyn M. Elliot. Los Angeles: Sage. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4RPCX448/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4RPCX448/collection</a>  §REF§The Pallavan capital was at Kanchi, modern-day Kanchipuram. The Pallava rulers were major beneifactors of education and gave land grants for schools. The Pallava dynasties also contributed to art and architecture by commissioning temples and shrines, particularly in the port city of Mamallapuram. §REF§ (Kamlesh 2010, 569) Kamelsh, Kapur. 2010. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In History of Ancient India: Portraits of a Nation. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection</a>  §REF§ In the late 9th century, the Pallava Empire was succeeded by the Chola Empire. §REF§ (Kamlesh 2010, 566) Kamelsh, Kapur. 2010. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In History of Ancient India: Portraits of a Nation. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection</a>  §REF§",
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        {
            "id": 92,
            "year_from": 802,
            "year_to": 960,
            "description": "The following quotes suggest the official toleration of the religion in early Angkor, at least from 961 CE on, though possibly following a period of \"persecution\" and \"harassment\". “[T]he existence of organized Buddhism so close to the symbolic heart of the state points to official toleration of the religion. It is difficult to be certain of the factors that contributed to this situation, but a close study of the text of K. 290, alongside the very similar and roughly contemporary inscription of nearby Prasat Komnap [K. 701], the site of a Vaisnavāśrama, suggests that the religious landscape of the period had syncretic features. It seems that the establishment of both Vaisnava and Buddhist structures is preceded by an invocation to Šiva, but it would be incorrect to push the notion of interreligious tolerance too far. Residents at the Vaisnavāśrama seem to have held some Buddhists in low regard, for K. 701 warns that ignorant Buddhists with bad morals, possibly with regard to celibacy, are not welcome in the hermitage. Bhattacharya (1955a, 112–113) notes that the same stipulation is not made for Śaivas. [...] There is a strong suggestion here of an attempt to reestablish the intellectual credentials of Buddhism in Cambodia after a period of persecution. It is difficult to be precise about the context, although the occurrence of Mahayanist concepts in K. 806 only six years before could suggest that any harassment of Buddhism may have occurred before 961 cв.” §REF§ Harris, I. (2008). Origins to the Fall of Angkor. p.12-18. In Cambodian Buddhism: History and Practice. Honolulu. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6FUXX8D5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 6FUXX8D5 </b></a>§REF§",
            "note": null,
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            "polity": {
                "id": 40,
                "name": "KhAngkE",
                "start_year": 802,
                "end_year": 1100,
                "long_name": "Early Angkor",
                "new_name": "kh_angkor_1",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The Khmer Empire was established in 802 CE, when a ruler known as Jayavarman II had himself proclaimed 'universal monarch' in a ceremony performed by Sanskrit-speaking priests on a mountain close to the Tonlé Sap lake. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  By bringing previously independent polities under their control, Jayavarman II and his successors expanded their realm across mainland Southeast Asia, including parts of modern-day Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in <i>The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies</i>, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Our Early Angkor period runs from 802 to 1100 CE, after which a new dynasty ‒ named after their place of origin, Mahidharapura ‒ came to power. §REF§ (Higham 2001, 107-09) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Numerous small kingdoms formed in the lower Mekong Basin in the mid-1st millennium CE, but until the conquests of Jayavarman II, most failed to outlive their founders. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Jayavarman II managed to unify previously warring local lords under his aegis, turning independent polities into provinces and laying the foundations for over six centuries of Khmer rule centred on the Siem Reap plain. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in <i>The Oxford Companion to Archaeology</i>, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>Like many polities in Southeast Asia at the turn of the 1st millennium CE, the new kingdom, with its growing urban centre on the north shore of the Tonlé Sap, borrowed from Indian religious practices, concepts of divine kingship, language, writing and iconography in order to legitimize royal power. §REF§ (Higham 2001, 8) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Kulke 1986, 14-15) Hermann Kulke. 1986. 'The Early and the Imperial Kingdom in Southeast Asian History', in <i>Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries</i>, edited by David G. Marr and A. C. Milner, 1-22. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. §REF§  Its kings patronized both Hindu and Buddhist institutions, building monasteries and sanctuaries dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and the Buddha that doubled as outposts of royal power throughout the realm. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 160) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Lieberman 2003, 33) Victor Lieberman. 2003. <i>Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800‒1830, Vol. 1: Integration on the Mainland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</i> §REF§  However, in this early period, it was the Hindu concepts that were most dominant: the ruler was exalted as a <i>devaraja</i> (god-king) and symbolically linked to Shiva. §REF§ (Hall 2010, 15) Kenneth R. Hall. 2010. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100‒1500</i>. Lanham: Rowman &amp; Littlefield. §REF§  Temples built in the kingdom before 1100 CE include Preah Ko, Bakheng, Pre Rup and Baphuon. §REF§ (Higham 2001, xiv) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>The riches of Angkor ultimately flowed from wet-rice agriculture, §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  and an institutionalized hierarchy of officials developed to funnel surplus rice produced in villages, as well as other goods like honey, spices, cloth and gold, to the royal centre. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in <i>The Oxford Companion to Archaeology</i>, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames &amp; Hudson. §REF§  Angkor kings also used corvée labour to build temples, irrigation infrastructure and other public works. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames &amp; Hudson. §REF§  §REF§ (Higham 2014, 368-70) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ <br>The Khmer Empire is famous for its sprawling but low-density urban sites. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in <i>The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies</i>, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  It has been claimed that Angkor itself was the 'largest settlement complex of the preindustrial world': §REF§ (Evans et al. 2013, 12595) Damian H. Evans, Roland J. Fletcher, Christophe Pottier, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, Dominique Soutif, Boun Suy Tan, Sokrithy Im, Darith Ea, Tina Tin, Samnang Kim, Christopher Cromarty, Stéphane De Greef, Kasper Hanus, Pierre Bâty, Robert Kuszinger, Ichita Shimoda, and Glenn Boornazian. 2013. 'Uncovering Archaeological Landscapes at Angkor Using Lidar'. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i> 110 (31): 12595-600. §REF§  at its peak in the 12th century (after this period) it covered 1000 square kilometres and may have housed over 750,000 people. §REF§ (Penny et al. 2014, 1) Dan Penny, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, David Tang, and Stéphane De Greef. 2014. 'The Environmental Impact of Cambodia's Ancient City of Mahendraparvata (Phnom Kulen)'. <i>PLoS ONE</i> 9 (1): e84252. §REF§  However, the total population of the empire in this period is still unclear.",
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