Soc Vio Freq Rel Grp List
A viewset for viewing and editing Social Violence Against Religious Groups.
GET /api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?ordering=year_to&page=2
{ "count": 222, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?ordering=year_to&page=3", "previous": "https://seshatdata.com/api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?ordering=year_to", "results": [ { "id": 563, "year_from": 1566, "year_to": 1670, "description": "\"When Christians divorced themselves from ceremonies that had previously ratified their bonds to fellow villagers, they began to define themselves as a distinct people. Non-Christians treated them accordingly. During the 1670s some converts were stripped of their chiefly titles; others became targets of verbal abuse, attacks by stone-throwing boys, and physical assaults. Such violence-which went beyond ordinary sanctions of ridicule and ostracism of deviants-did not stamp out the new faith. Indeed, the early 1670s saw a steady growth in the number of native Iroquois baptisms and in the size of Christian factions. Perhaps, then, the violence should be seen not only as an effort by traditionalists to force deviants back into line but also as evidence of the formation of divergent communities within single villages. Christians were no longer the traditionalists' kinsmen. They were, in some respects, their enemies. [...] Throughout the Five Nations during the late 1670s, missionaries reportedly were 'struck, pursued in the streets, driven from the cabins, and threatened with cruel massacre, in order that war may be brought on by their death.' First to expel a priest were Cayuga traditionalists led by the headman Ourehouare, who drove Carheil from their country in 1682.\"§REF§(Richter 1985: 10-12) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HPVINEVK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HPVINEVK </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 101, "name": "UsIroqE", "start_year": 1566, "end_year": 1713, "long_name": "Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Early", "new_name": "us_haudenosaunee_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Finger Lakes region of the modern-day state of New York was once part of Iroquois territory. On the eve of European contact, this territory stretched from Lake Champlain and Lake George west to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario and from the St. Lawrence River south to the Susquehanna River. Originally, the League of the Iroquois was a confederacy of five Native American tribes (the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca), joined by a sixth tribe, the Tuscarora, in 1722, following its northward migration from the Roanoke River. This confederacy was created between 1400 and 1600 CE. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the confederacy was overall able to exploit the establishment of the European fur trade to its advantage, playing French and English interests off against one another, and gaining a major role in economic and political affairs. As a result of this, the Iroquois - particularly the Seneca - also frequently clashed with other Native tribes, such as the Huron, Petun, Neutral and Susquehannock. Eventually, the Iroquois also came into conflict with the Europeans, first with the French, then with the American revolutionaries. Starting in the 19th century, the Iroquois tribes settled on reservations in western New York state, southern Quebec and southern Ontario. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The central Iroquois League Council dealt with common affairs, while tribal chiefs and councils (as well as the female elders of their respective lineages and more recently created non-hereditary positions) occupied an intermediary position. The council included 50 men and women representing the five original tribes and had legislative, executive and judiciary powers, but it only deliberated on matters relating to foreign affairs (for example, peace and war) as well as matters of common interest to all five tribes. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE</a>. §REF§ <br>According to Gerald Reid, there were around 5,500 Iroquois at the beginning of the 17th century. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 29, "name": "Finger Lakes", "subregion": "East Coast", "longitude": "-77.021375000000", "latitude": "42.704980000000", "capital_city": "Seneca Falls", "nga_code": "USNY", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 22, "name": "East Coast", "subregions_list": "East Coast of US", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 564, "year_from": 1671, "year_to": 1713, "description": "\"When Christians divorced themselves from ceremonies that had previously ratified their bonds to fellow villagers, they began to define themselves as a distinct people. Non-Christians treated them accordingly. During the 1670s some converts were stripped of their chiefly titles; others became targets of verbal abuse, attacks by stone-throwing boys, and physical assaults. Such violence-which went beyond ordinary sanctions of ridicule and ostracism of deviants-did not stamp out the new faith. Indeed, the early 1670s saw a steady growth in the number of native Iroquois baptisms and in the size of Christian factions. Perhaps, then, the violence should be seen not only as an effort by traditionalists to force deviants back into line but also as evidence of the formation of divergent communities within single villages. Christians were no longer the traditionalists' kinsmen. They were, in some respects, their enemies. [...] Throughout the Five Nations during the late 1670s, missionaries reportedly were 'struck, pursued in the streets, driven from the cabins, and threatened with cruel massacre, in order that war may be brought on by their death.' First to expel a priest were Cayuga traditionalists led by the headman Ourehouare, who drove Carheil from their country in 1682.\"§REF§(Richter 1985: 10-12) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HPVINEVK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HPVINEVK </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 101, "name": "UsIroqE", "start_year": 1566, "end_year": 1713, "long_name": "Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Early", "new_name": "us_haudenosaunee_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Finger Lakes region of the modern-day state of New York was once part of Iroquois territory. On the eve of European contact, this territory stretched from Lake Champlain and Lake George west to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario and from the St. Lawrence River south to the Susquehanna River. Originally, the League of the Iroquois was a confederacy of five Native American tribes (the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca), joined by a sixth tribe, the Tuscarora, in 1722, following its northward migration from the Roanoke River. This confederacy was created between 1400 and 1600 CE. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the confederacy was overall able to exploit the establishment of the European fur trade to its advantage, playing French and English interests off against one another, and gaining a major role in economic and political affairs. As a result of this, the Iroquois - particularly the Seneca - also frequently clashed with other Native tribes, such as the Huron, Petun, Neutral and Susquehannock. Eventually, the Iroquois also came into conflict with the Europeans, first with the French, then with the American revolutionaries. Starting in the 19th century, the Iroquois tribes settled on reservations in western New York state, southern Quebec and southern Ontario. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The central Iroquois League Council dealt with common affairs, while tribal chiefs and councils (as well as the female elders of their respective lineages and more recently created non-hereditary positions) occupied an intermediary position. The council included 50 men and women representing the five original tribes and had legislative, executive and judiciary powers, but it only deliberated on matters relating to foreign affairs (for example, peace and war) as well as matters of common interest to all five tribes. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE</a>. §REF§ <br>According to Gerald Reid, there were around 5,500 Iroquois at the beginning of the 17th century. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 29, "name": "Finger Lakes", "subregion": "East Coast", "longitude": "-77.021375000000", "latitude": "42.704980000000", "capital_city": "Seneca Falls", "nga_code": "USNY", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 22, "name": "East Coast", "subregions_list": "East Coast of US", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 499, "year_from": 1662, "year_to": 1724, "description": "The following quote refers to the Capuchins missionaries from Spain: “They [the Roman Catholic Spanish Capuchin missionaries] attempted a direct appeal to some of the Allada chiefs, but without success; and when they attempted to preach directly to the people in the streets, they were physically assaulted.” §REF§ (Law 1991: 48) Law, Robin, 1991. Religion, trade and politics on the 'slave coast': Roman Catholic Missions in Allada and Whydah in the Seventeenth Century. Journal of Religion in Africa/Religion en Afrique. 21, pp. 42-77. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CZP6AQ6H\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CZP6AQ6H </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 659, "name": "ni_allada_k", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1724, "long_name": "Allada", "new_name": "ni_allada_k", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 489, "year_from": 1500, "year_to": 1789, "description": "“It was towards the final phase of this era of conquest [1610-1790] that Kwararafan history began to merge into Jukun history. Now situated in the Benue Valley, Kwararafan began to experience waves of Jukun migrations, and the Jukun before long became the dominant group in the region.” §REF§ (Afolayan 2005: 247-248) Afolayan, Funso, 2005. “Benue Valley Peoples: Jukun and Kwararafa”, in Shillington, K., ed. Encyclopedia of African History (1st Ed., Vol. 1–3). (Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn), pp.247-248. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGGEJWF9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZGGEJWF9 </b></a> §REF§ The following quote suggests general tolerance, and point to the existence of \"innumerable\" religious cults. Note, however, that the following quote also refers to the succeeding polity: nevertheless, it is probably relevant to the latter phase of this polity as well. “The Jukun inherited the political power of Kwararafa, but not its martial tradition. The far-flung confederacy had become the homogenous Jukun kingdom of Wukari. Kwararafa under the Jukun ceased to be a warrior state; extant accounts portray the new state as a pacifist and religious one, made up of a collection of unwarlike people solely and strictly devoted to the maintenance of their innumerable religious cults and the veneration of their sacred kings, a people whose prestige and continuing legitimacy depended on their successful performance of their main ritual function, which was to guarantee good harvest and good health for the people.” §REF§ Shillington, K., ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of African History (1st Ed., Vol. 1–3). Fitzroy Dearborn: 248. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AWA9ZT5B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AWA9ZT5B </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 658, "name": "ni_kwararafa", "start_year": 596, "end_year": 1820, "long_name": "Kwararafa", "new_name": "ni_kwararafa", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 490, "year_from": 1790, "year_to": 1820, "description": "“It was towards the final phase of this era of conquest [1610-1790] that Kwararafan history began to merge into Jukun history. Now situated in the Benue Valley, Kwararafan began to experience waves of Jukun migrations, and the Jukun before long became the dominant group in the region.” §REF§ (Afolayan 2005: 247-248) Afolayan, Funso, 2005. “Benue Valley Peoples: Jukun and Kwararafa”, in Shillington, K., ed. Encyclopedia of African History (1st Ed., Vol. 1–3). (Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn), pp.247-248. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGGEJWF9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZGGEJWF9 </b></a> §REF§ The following quote suggests general tolerance, and point to the existence of \"innumerable\" religious cults. Note, however, that the following quote also refers to the succeeding polity: nevertheless, it is probably relevant to the latter phase of this polity as well. “The Jukun inherited the political power of Kwararafa, but not its martial tradition. The far-flung confederacy had become the homogenous Jukun kingdom of Wukari. Kwararafa under the Jukun ceased to be a warrior state; extant accounts portray the new state as a pacifist and religious one, made up of a collection of unwarlike people solely and strictly devoted to the maintenance of their innumerable religious cults and the veneration of their sacred kings, a people whose prestige and continuing legitimacy depended on their successful performance of their main ritual function, which was to guarantee good harvest and good health for the people.” §REF§ Shillington, K., ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of African History (1st Ed., Vol. 1–3). Fitzroy Dearborn: 248. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AWA9ZT5B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AWA9ZT5B </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 658, "name": "ni_kwararafa", "start_year": 596, "end_year": 1820, "long_name": "Kwararafa", "new_name": "ni_kwararafa", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 501, "year_from": 1780, "year_to": 1859, "description": "\"The Islamic centers established in the two Islamic kingdoms of the Gibe states produced Islamic missionary students who were determined to convert the surrounding Oromo to Islam by force.” §REF§ (Benti 2018, 129) Benti, Ujulu Tesso. 2018. Oromo Indigenous Religion and Oromo Christianity. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GR89DNEK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GR89DNEK </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 641, "name": "et_gomma_k", "start_year": 1780, "end_year": 1886, "long_name": "Kingdom of Gomma", "new_name": "et_gomma_k", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_EAST", "general_description": "The Kingdom of Gomma was one of the five Oromo kingdoms located in Western Ethiopia. The Kingdom of Gomma originated in the late eighteenth century CE and its capital was located at Haggaro. According to Historian Spencer Trimingham, the Kingdom of Gomma was one of the first Oromo kingdoms to embrace Islam. By 1886 CE the Kingdom of Gomma was annexed into the Ethiopian Empire under Menelik II. §REF§ (Trimingham 2013, 200) Trimingham, J. Spencer. 2013. Islam in Ethiopia. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/RB7C87QZ/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/RB7C87QZ/collection</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 2, "name": "East Africa", "subregions_list": "Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 511, "year_from": 1800, "year_to": 1859, "description": "“From the late 1860s onward, Gumma in particular experienced a strong religious fervor; its kings conducted a jihad first against non-Muslim neighbors who belonged to stateless societies and, after 1882, against the occupation armies of the Ethiopian emperor Menilek.” §REF§ (Kapteijns 2000, 233-234) Kapteijns, Lidwien. 2000. ‘Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa.’ In The History of Islam in Africa. Edited by Nehemia Levtzion and Randall L. Pouwels. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9UB7CXC7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9UB7CXC7 </b></a> §REF§ \"The Islamic centers established in the two Islamic kingdoms of the Gibe states produced Islamic missionary students who were determined to convert the surrounding Oromo to Islam by force.” §REF§ (Benti 2018, 129) Benti, Ujulu Tesso. 2018. Oromo Indigenous Religion and Oromo Christianity. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GR89DNEK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GR89DNEK </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 651, "name": "et_gumma_k", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1897, "long_name": "Kingdom of Gumma", "new_name": "et_gumma_k", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_EAST", "general_description": "The Kingdom of Gumma was one of the five Oromo kingdoms located in Western Ethiopia. The Kingdom of Gumma originated in the early nineteenth century CE and had its capital located in Chora. §REF§ (Recluse 1892, 212) Recluse, Elisee. 1892. The Earth and Its Inhabitance: North-East Africa. Edited by A.H. Keane. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ISD6B4K2/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ISD6B4K2/collection</a> §REF§ Like its neighbouring Oromo kingdoms, the Kingdom of Gumma seemed to be politically and administratively similar to the Kingdom of Jimma. §REF§ (Lewis 2001, 124-125) Lewis, Herbert S. 2001. Jimma Abba Jifar, an Oromo Monarchy: Ethiopia, 1830-1932. Lawrenceville, New Jersey: The Red Sea Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NRZVWSCD/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NRZVWSCD/collection</a> §REF§ The Kingdom of Gumma was an Islamic kingdom and was particularly active in Jihadis movements in the second half of the nineteenth century. §REF§ (Hassen 1992, 96) Hassen, Mohammed. ‘Islam as a Resistance Ideology Among the Oromo of Ethiopia.’ In In The Shadow of Conquest: Islam in Colonial Northeast Africa. Trenton, New Jersey: The Red Sea Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/search/Hassen/titleCreatorYear/items/PJ3UMMX5/item-list\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/search/Hassen/titleCreatorYear/items/PJ3UMMX5/item-list</a> §REF§ The Kingdom of Gumma was eventually annexed into the Ethiopian Empire by Menelik II at the turn of the twentieth century. §REF§ (Trimingham 2013, 200) Trimingham, Spencer. 2013. Islam in Ethiopia. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/search/Trimingham/titleCreatorYear/items/RB7C87QZ/item-list\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/search/Trimingham/titleCreatorYear/items/RB7C87QZ/item-list</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 2, "name": "East Africa", "subregions_list": "Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 502, "year_from": 1860, "year_to": 1886, "description": "\"The Islamic centers established in the two Islamic kingdoms of the Gibe states produced Islamic missionary students who were determined to convert the surrounding Oromo to Islam by force.” §REF§ (Benti 2018, 129) Benti, Ujulu Tesso. 2018. Oromo Indigenous Religion and Oromo Christianity. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GR89DNEK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GR89DNEK </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 641, "name": "et_gomma_k", "start_year": 1780, "end_year": 1886, "long_name": "Kingdom of Gomma", "new_name": "et_gomma_k", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_EAST", "general_description": "The Kingdom of Gomma was one of the five Oromo kingdoms located in Western Ethiopia. The Kingdom of Gomma originated in the late eighteenth century CE and its capital was located at Haggaro. According to Historian Spencer Trimingham, the Kingdom of Gomma was one of the first Oromo kingdoms to embrace Islam. By 1886 CE the Kingdom of Gomma was annexed into the Ethiopian Empire under Menelik II. §REF§ (Trimingham 2013, 200) Trimingham, J. Spencer. 2013. Islam in Ethiopia. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/RB7C87QZ/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/RB7C87QZ/collection</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 2, "name": "East Africa", "subregions_list": "Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 512, "year_from": 1860, "year_to": 1897, "description": "“From the late 1860s onward, Gumma in particular experienced a strong religious fervor; its kings conducted a jihad first against non-Muslim neighbors who belonged to stateless societies and, after 1882, against the occupation armies of the Ethiopian emperor Menilek.” §REF§ (Kapteijns 2000, 233-234) Kapteijns, Lidwien. 2000. ‘Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa.’ In The History of Islam in Africa. Edited by Nehemia Levtzion and Randall L. Pouwels. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9UB7CXC7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9UB7CXC7 </b></a> §REF§ \"The Islamic centers established in the two Islamic kingdoms of the Gibe states produced Islamic missionary students who were determined to convert the surrounding Oromo to Islam by force.” §REF§ (Benti 2018, 129) Benti, Ujulu Tesso. 2018. Oromo Indigenous Religion and Oromo Christianity. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GR89DNEK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GR89DNEK </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 651, "name": "et_gumma_k", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1897, "long_name": "Kingdom of Gumma", "new_name": "et_gumma_k", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_EAST", "general_description": "The Kingdom of Gumma was one of the five Oromo kingdoms located in Western Ethiopia. The Kingdom of Gumma originated in the early nineteenth century CE and had its capital located in Chora. §REF§ (Recluse 1892, 212) Recluse, Elisee. 1892. The Earth and Its Inhabitance: North-East Africa. Edited by A.H. Keane. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ISD6B4K2/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ISD6B4K2/collection</a> §REF§ Like its neighbouring Oromo kingdoms, the Kingdom of Gumma seemed to be politically and administratively similar to the Kingdom of Jimma. §REF§ (Lewis 2001, 124-125) Lewis, Herbert S. 2001. Jimma Abba Jifar, an Oromo Monarchy: Ethiopia, 1830-1932. Lawrenceville, New Jersey: The Red Sea Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NRZVWSCD/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NRZVWSCD/collection</a> §REF§ The Kingdom of Gumma was an Islamic kingdom and was particularly active in Jihadis movements in the second half of the nineteenth century. §REF§ (Hassen 1992, 96) Hassen, Mohammed. ‘Islam as a Resistance Ideology Among the Oromo of Ethiopia.’ In In The Shadow of Conquest: Islam in Colonial Northeast Africa. Trenton, New Jersey: The Red Sea Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/search/Hassen/titleCreatorYear/items/PJ3UMMX5/item-list\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/search/Hassen/titleCreatorYear/items/PJ3UMMX5/item-list</a> §REF§ The Kingdom of Gumma was eventually annexed into the Ethiopian Empire by Menelik II at the turn of the twentieth century. §REF§ (Trimingham 2013, 200) Trimingham, Spencer. 2013. Islam in Ethiopia. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/search/Trimingham/titleCreatorYear/items/RB7C87QZ/item-list\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/search/Trimingham/titleCreatorYear/items/RB7C87QZ/item-list</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 2, "name": "East Africa", "subregions_list": "Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 538, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“At Aden, business interests trumped any and all potential communal divisions. While ethnic and religious communities managed their own affairs internally, when matters crossed these boundaries the city authorities adjudicated a solution. Although there was undoubtedly competition for business, and while commercial affairs were largely constructed within bounded communities, some cross-cultural partnerships also formed. A notable case involved the Jewish nakhuda Mahruz and his Indian counterpart Tinbu.” §REF§ (Alpers 2014, 54-55) Alpers, Edward A. 2014. The Indian Ocean in World History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QH5QTKXV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QH5QTKXV </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 368, "name": "YeRasul", "start_year": 1229, "end_year": 1453, "long_name": "Rasulid Dynasty", "new_name": "ye_resulid_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Yemeni Coastal Plain or Plateau refers to the north-western region of modern Yemen, lying between the Red Sea and the Yemeni Mountains. During the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries CE, the region—along with the eastern portion of southern Arabia—was ruled by the Rasūlid Dynasty. Prior to this date, Yemen had formed part of the Ayyūbid Sultanate, centered in Egypt. When the last Ayyūbid ruler of Yemen, al-Mas‘ūd Yūsuf, was summoned to govern Syria in the early thirteenth century, de facto control passed to his trusted second-in-command, the Rasūlid Nūr al-Dīn ‘Umar. §REF§ (Stookey 1978, 106–07) Robert W. Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3</a>. §REF§ The Rasūlids, a Sunnī Muslim dynasty, presided over a prosperous and largely stable period in Yemeni history, developing a centralized bureaucracy, patronizing scholarly and religious institutions, and controlling important ports of trade. §REF§ (Varisco 1993, 13–15, 21–22) Varisco, Daniel Martin. “Texts and Pretexts: The Unity of the Rasulid State under Al-Malik Al-Muzaffar.” Revue Du Monde Musulman et de La Méditerranée 67 (1993): 13–24. doi: 10.3406/remmm.1993.1584. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TV9TVUZ5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TV9TVUZ5</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Stookey 1978, 114) Robert W. Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3</a>. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for the entire polity could be found in the sources consulted, but Aden, the capital, likely had a population of c. 50,000 under the Rasūlids. §REF§ (Bidwell 1983, 14) Bidwell, Robin Leonard. 1983. The Two Yemens. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WR5RMRMQ/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WR5RMRMQ/</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 12, "name": "Yemeni Coastal Plain", "subregion": "Arabia", "longitude": "43.315739000000", "latitude": "14.850891000000", "capital_city": "Sanaa", "nga_code": "YE", "fao_country": "Yemen", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 44, "name": "Arabia", "subregions_list": "Arabian Peninsula", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }