Soc Vio Freq Rel Grp List
A viewset for viewing and editing Social Violence Against Religious Groups.
GET /api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?ordering=id&page=2
{ "count": 222, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?ordering=id&page=3", "previous": "https://seshatdata.com/api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?ordering=id", "results": [ { "id": 450, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Though the basic tenets of Buddhism were contrary to Brahmanism, the rulers, as well as laymen were able to accept, or at least respect, both faiths without rancour of confrontation.” §REF§ (Gadkari 1996: 141) Gadkari, Jayant. (1996). Society and Religion: From Rugveda to Puranas. India: Popular Prakashan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ADKUMS3Z\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ADKUMS3Z </b></a> §REF§ NB the following quote does not mention violence directly, but it acknowledges that laymen were supporting the Buddhism via donations. “A perusal of gifts to Buddhist monks and institutions mentioned in the Luders ' List leaves the impression that in Bharhut and Sanchi most gifts were made by artisans and a class of merchants call gandhikas from which the title gandhi is derived.” §REF§ (Sharma 1966: 84) Sharma, R. S. (1966). SATAVAHANA POLITY. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 28, 81–93. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/V7KV3P74\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: V7KV3P74 </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 89, "name": "InSataL", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 203, "long_name": "Satavahana Empire", "new_name": "in_satavahana_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Satavahanas were the first Deccan-based dynasty to rule over an empire encompassing both southern and northern India, stretching from the Deccan Plateau in the south to Madhya Pradesh in the north, and touching both the western and eastern coasts. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 25-26) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ According to the most widely accepted hypothesis, based on numismatic, archaeological and textual evidence, this polity existed between the beginning of the 1st century BCE and the end of the 2nd century CE, though many scholars are reluctant to assign absolute dates to specific kings. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2001, 166) Carla Sinopoli. 2001. 'On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty', in <i>Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History</i>, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla Sinopoli, 155-78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Notable rulers include Gautamiputra Satakarani, Vasistiputra, Pulamavi, and Yajnasri. Under their governance, Indian commerce with the Western world intensified and there was a florescence of the arts, particularly in the field of Buddhist iconography. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 25-26) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ However, records are scanty when it comes to the empire's middle century, which suggests that the Satavahana polity went through two phases of power and prosperity, with an intervening period of regionalization, and perhaps even collapse. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2001, 166) Carla Sinopoli. 2001. 'On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty', in <i>Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History</i>, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla Sinopoli, 155-78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Satavahana polity was ruled by an emperor. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 25) Suryanatha Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ He was aided, at court, by a number of officials, including attendants and advisors, the <i>mahasenapati</i> (army commander), the superintendent of stores, the treasurer, officials tasked with drafting and registering his documents, and officials tasked with supervising feudal lords. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 25) Suryanatha Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 32-33) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ The provinces were governed by feudal lords who were related by blood to the royal family, by lords who struck coins in their own name (perhaps indicating some degree of autonomy from the Satavahanas themselves), and by military commanders in charge of outlying centres. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 25) Suryanatha Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ The fact that the empire likely suffered some sort of collapse in its middle period suggests that it may have been overly dependent on the abilities of individual rulers rather than a well-designed administrative structure. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2001, 166) Carla Sinopoli. 2001. 'On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty', in <i>Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History</i>, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla Sinopoli, 155-78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for this period could be found in the specialist literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 36, "name": "Central India", "subregions_list": "Deccan, etc", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 451, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "\"Wine was also consumed in the imperial capital of Saadian Morocco a century later. Fray Matías de San Francisco observed that Christian captives obtained some small income from the production and sale of wine to the Muslims: ‘the poor Christian captives provide for themselves making some wine, and selling it to the Moors’. The friar also wrote that ‘for the Moor it is a sin to drink wine, but this sin, he says, is small […] but making wine themselves is for them a great sin, and they have great punishments for it, if it were known, and therefore the captive Christians do it, and sell it to the Moors’. This activity, though, involved some risk, since they were sometimes accused of being responsible, for example, for some natural disaster due to the great sin involved in the making of wine. As noted by Fray Matías: ‘the poor Christians also suffer great persecution, because if it does not rain on time or the storms are bad or some adverse thing happens to the Moors and the kingdom, they fall back on this as a crutch, saying it is the sins of the Christians who live there and make this wine, which they consider a great sin, and not because it is so great to drink it; it is the cause of evil’. The Jews were also victims of wine-related Muslim rage, and accusations regarding wine production and drinking were often found in Muslim texts as the preamble to an anti-Jewish attack.\" §REF§ (Ojeda-Mata 2020: 113-114) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HBD6T7K8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HBD6T7K8 </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "MaSaadi", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659, "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "new_name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "This polity represents the period in which Morocco was ruled by the Saadi dynasty. Although the dynasty itself was founded in 1511 CE, we date the beginning of the polity to 1554, when the Saadis took Fez from their dynastic rivals, the Wattasids, and united Morocco under their rule. As for the polity's end, it seems most appropriate to date it to 1659, the year the last Saadi monarch was assassinated. Between 1554 and 1591, the boundaries of the Saadi Sultanate coincided with those of modern-day Morocco. Between 1591 and 1618, the Saadi also ruled over the Niger Inland Delta, though their control over this area seems to have been nominal. After the death of Sultan Ahmad Al-Mansur in 1603, the polity entered a period of instability that ultimately led to the loss of their Niger colony. §REF§ (El Fasi 1992, 200-32) M. El Fasi. 1992. 'Morocco'. In <i>General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 200-32. London: Heinemann. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In the 16th and 17th centuries CE, the Saadis ruled through an Ottoman-style hierarchical regime. §REF§ (García-Arenal 2009, 57-58) Mercedes García-Arenal. 2009. <i>Ahmad Al-Mansur: The Beginnings of Modern Morocco</i>. Oxford: OneWorld. §REF§ Atop this hierarchy stood the sultan, followed by the wazir or vizier, usually the crown prince. Then came the sultan's council, headed by the First Secretary, who fulfilled the roles of secretary of state, majordomo and treasurer. The vice-vizier was in charge of the army and the <i>qadi al-qudat</i> (chief religious judge) headed the judiciary and appointed regional qadis.<br>The Saadi Sultanate is likely to have had a population of no more than 3 million at its peak. This is based on the earliest available population estimate for Morocco, which dates to the 20th century. According to García-Arenal, '[t]he figure can hardly have been higher in the late sixteenth century or during the seventeenth, given that the country was subject to regular and devastating epidemics of plague'. §REF§ (García-Arenal 2009, 41) Mercedes García-Arenal. 2009. <i>Ahmad Al-Mansur: The Beginnings of Modern Morocco</i>. Oxford: OneWorld. §REF§ However, it is worth noting that this estimate does not take into account the population of the Niger Inland Delta.<br><br/><br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 6, "name": "Niger Inland Delta", "subregion": "Sahel", "longitude": "-3.041703000000", "latitude": "16.717549000000", "capital_city": "Timbuctu", "nga_code": "ML", "fao_country": "Mali", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 452, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "The following quote suggest a form of coexistence during this period. “From the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries on, a crucial factor in the propagation of Islam in West Africa was the extension and expansion of long-distance networks of trade literally across the Sahel and south into the forest zones. Muslim traders on these routes, widely known as Wangara or Dyula, were accompanied or soon followed by itinerant teachers of Islam who largely adhered to what came to be known as the Suwarian tradition, named for al-Hajj Salim Suware (dated to the thirteenth century by some historians, to the fifteenth by others). This tradition eschewed jihad except when Muslims were forced to defend themselves; avoided active proselytizing on the grounds that it is God, not human beings, who decides when people should convert; and favored the coexistence of Muslims and ‘unbelievers’ as long as the latter did not prevent the Muslims from living according to the precepts of Islam. These teachers focused on Islamic education in the Muslim communities along the traders’ diasporas. This tajdid (‘renewal’) activity – a central aspect of the history of Islam in the Sahel – enabled those communities to maintain their Islamic identity and to reproduce it generation after generation. Thanks to this incessant effort, Muslim communities could multiply themselves over long distances and live in non-Muslim cultural environments without losing their distinctiveness.” §REF§ (De Moraes Farias 2020: 133) De Moraes Farias, Paulo F. 2020. ‘Islam in the West African Sahel’. In Sahel: Art and Empires on the Shores of the Sahara. Edited by A. La Gamma. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HPASJ4RZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HPASJ4RZ </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "MlMali*", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410, "long_name": "Mali Empire", "new_name": "ml_mali_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "After the gradual decline of the Ghana Empire, the power vacuum left in the Sudanese region was filled with several smaller successor states, including the Sosso Kingdom. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 33) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ In the early 13th century CE, several Malinke chiefdoms from the Upper Niger region united against the Sosso and slowly aggregated into what would become the Mali Empire. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 31) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ This polity, also known as the Mandingo Empire, §REF§ (Diop 1987, 93) Cheikh Anta Diop. 1987. <i>Precolonial Black Africa</i>, translated by Harold Salemson. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. §REF§ was the largest of the West African empires, and flourished from the early 13th to the late 14th/early 15th century, at which point it started to decline. §REF§ (MacDonald et al. 2011, 52) K. C. MacDonald, S. Camara, S. Canós, N. Gestrich, and D. Keita. 2011. 'Sorotomo: A Forgotten Malian Capital?' <i>Archaeology International</i> 13: 52-64. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://doi.org/10.5334/ai.1315\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://doi.org/10.5334/ai.1315</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 592) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The apogee of the Mali Empire corresponds to the reign of Musa I of the Keita dynasty, the <i>mansa</i> (emperor) who reigned over 24 cities and their surrounding territories from 1312 to 1337. §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 45) David C. Conrad. 2010. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ His empire extended from the Atlantic to Gao and the Niger Inland Delta, and from the southern Sahara to the tropical forest belt. §REF§ (Diop 1987, 93) Cheikh Anta Diop. 1987. <i>Precolonial Black Africa</i>, translated by Harold Salemson. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. §REF§ Musa I is also famed for his patronage of Islam in Mali and for his lavish distribution of gold when he set off on a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1325. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 148) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The kings of the Keita dynasty sat at the apex of a confederation incorporating smaller kingdoms such as Ghana and Mema. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 158-60) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ At its height, the empire comprised 12 provinces made up of smaller, village-centred clan units. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 161) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The mansa (emperor) was thus a 'chief of chiefs', assuming the mantle of a supreme patriarch, and he could dispense justice personally. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 160) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ He received advice from the <i>griot</i>, chosen from the Kouyate clan, who was also his spokesman and the tutor of princes. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 160) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ <br>The aristocracy formed around the Malinke warrior class, §REF§ (Niane 1975, 36) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. <i>Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle</i>. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ including an elite corps of cavalry. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 162) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The empire maintained a strong army, with garrisons stationed in the main towns. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 164) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The merchant class, known as Dyula or Wangara, §REF§ (Davidson 1998, 42) Basil Davidson. 1998. <i>West Africa Before the Colonial Era: A History to 1850</i>. Routledge: London. §REF§ formed settlements at the margins of the forest regions, such Kankan in modern-day Guinea, Bobo Dioulasso in modern Ivory Coast, and Begho in modern Ghana. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 64) Roland Anthony Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The cities of Mali were cosmopolitan, inhabited by people of every occupation and from every province of the empire, §REF§ (Niane 1984, 145) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ and prospering from their participation in Trans-Saharan trade networks and the export of gold, ivory, salt and slaves. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 42) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ Their characteristic mudbrick architecture, known as <i>banco</i>, can still be admired today. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 150) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ This distinctive architectural style is one of many signs of Mali's legacy in the region, as its language, laws and customs spread through West Africa. In the 15th century, however, a long period of gradual decline began. Timbuktu was captured by the Tuareg in 1433, §REF§ (Ly-Tall 1984, 174) Madina Ly-Tall. 1984. 'The decline of the Mali empire' in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 172-86. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ and a few decades of internal political struggles made it difficult for the emperors to maintain control over such a large region, leading to the contraction of the empire's territory. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 46) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ <br>The empire was densely populated, with a reported 400 towns in the region and a compact net of villages near the trading city of Jenné. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 156) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ When the Andalusi diplomat Leo Africanus visited Niani in the 16th century, he described a thriving city of 'six thousand hearths'. §REF§ (Davidson 1998, 43) Basil Davidson. 1998. <i>West Africa Before the Colonial Era: A History to 1850</i>. Routledge: London. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 6, "name": "Niger Inland Delta", "subregion": "Sahel", "longitude": "-3.041703000000", "latitude": "16.717549000000", "capital_city": "Timbuctu", "nga_code": "ML", "fao_country": "Mali", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 453, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“This Illinois hospitality impressed the French immediately. Allouez marveled in 1666 that \"it is said that whenever [the Illinois] meet a stranger, they give a cry of joy, caress him, and show him every possible evidence of affection.\" Dablon noted that the Illinois \"showed us such politeness, caresses, and evidences of affection as will scarcely be credited.\" When Marquette and Jolliet arrived at the Peoria village in 1673, they were welcomed by the Illinois elders, who led them to their cabins, laid them down on mats, and massaged their legs and feet. After a steam bath, the French ate from the best food the villagers could offer in a cabin the Illinois provided. The Illinois treated all strangers to the village in this same way. Once they provided for their guest's comfort, the Illinois would politely ask the strangers of news from other villages, maintaining a strict silence when the guests, or anyone else, spoke. When they knew a guest lied, they ignored it. At the end of a visit, they always gave a gift including deer and beaver pelts for a guest's journey home. In fact, the Illinois granted a guest's any request.” §REF§ (Bilodeau, 364) Bilodeau, Christopher. 2001. ‘”They Honor Our Lord among Themselves in Their Own Way”: Colonial Christianity and the Illinois Indians’. American Indian Quarterly. Vol. 25. No. 3. Pp. 352-377. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AFD5FRWH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AFD5FRWH </b></a>§REF§”At times the Illinois emphasized the material aspect of religious practice so much that they threatened the lives of missionaries. The Illinois rose in anger most frequently over baptism. As is well known, many American Indians blamed missionaries for the deaths of recently baptized Indians. At first, the Illinois believed that the ritual of baptism gave the body eternal life, as Allouez wrote of the Miami in his journal of 1672-73. When sick Illinois died soon after they were baptized, however, many Illinois began to believe that baptism caused their deaths. When an Illinois child became ill, as often happened, the missionaries insisted on baptizing the child, believing that the soul of a non- baptized child would suffer eternally in hell. The missionaries also insisted on baptizing dying non-Christian adults, just in time, they believed, to save their souls. So, more often than not, missionaries baptized Illinois Indians who then died. It is not surprising, then, that the Illinois connected baptism with death. Many Illinois treated missionaries as if they were evil, and even at times threatened to kill them after a baptized Indian died. §REF§ (Bilodeau, 367) Bilodeau, Christopher. 2001. ‘”They Honor Our Lord among Themselves in Their Own Way”: Colonial Christianity and the Illinois Indians’. American Indian Quarterly. Vol. 25. No. 3. Pp. 352-377. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AFD5FRWH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AFD5FRWH </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 30, "name": "USIllin", "start_year": 1640, "end_year": 1717, "long_name": "Early Illinois Confederation", "new_name": "us_early_illinois_confederation", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Our early Illinois period refers to the span of time from 1640 CE, the approximate date of the first European written reports of the Illinois (also known as Inoca, Illiniwek, Illini) Indians, §REF§ (Illinois State Museum 2000) Illinois State Museum. 2000. \"The Illinois: History.\" MuseumLink Illinois. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/il_hi.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/il_hi.html</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/PT8275IS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/PT8275IS</a>. §REF§ to 1717, when the Illinois Country was incorporated into the French colony of Louisiane. §REF§ (Walthall and Emerson 1992, 9-10) Walthall, John A., and Thomas E. Emerson. 1992. \"Indians and French in the Midcontinent.\" In Calumet and Fleur-De-Lys: French and Indian Interaction in the Midcontinent, edited by John A. Walthall and Thomas E. Emerson, 1-13. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2VQKWPMN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2VQKWPMN</a>. §REF§ From the 1660s and 1670s onwards, France claimed title to the Illinois Country (<i>Pays des Illinois</i>) as part of its North American colonial possessions, but French presence in the region before 1717 was generally limited to small numbers of missionaries and traders. §REF§ (Walthall and Emerson 1992, 8-9) Walthall, John A., and Thomas E. Emerson. 1992. \"Indians and French in the Midcontinent.\" In Calumet and Fleur-De-Lys: French and Indian Interaction in the Midcontinent, edited by John A. Walthall and Thomas E. Emerson, 1-13. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2VQKWPMN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2VQKWPMN</a>. §REF§ In this early contact period, the Illinois were theoretically under the 'protection' of the French crown, but in practice maintained their autonomy. §REF§ (Havard 2013, 117) Havard, Gilles. 2013. \"'Protection' and 'Unequal Alliance': The French Conception of Sovereignty over Indians in New France.\" In French and Indians in the Heart of North America, 1630-1815, edited by Robert Englebert and Guillaume Teasdale, 113-37. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IDG32ZN9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IDG32ZN9</a>. §REF§ The region referred to as the Illinois Country in both modern and older sources was located to the east of the Middle Mississippi river, bounded to the north by Lake Michigan, to the south by the Ohio river, and to the west by the Wabash. §REF§ (Walthall and Emerson 1991, 5) Walthall, John A., and Thomas E. Emerson. 1991. \"French Colonial Archaeology.\" In French Colonial Archaeology: The Illinois Country and the Western Great Lakes, edited by John A. Walthall, 78-84. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XQWPU4VH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XQWPU4VH</a>. §REF§ However, it is likely that the Illinois-speaking groups encountered by Europeans in the 17th century had arrived in this area relatively recently, possibly migrating westwards from the Lake Erie basin. §REF§ (Hall 1997, 173) Hall, Robert L. 1997. An Archaeology of the Soul: North American Indian Belief and Ritual. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8KH357GV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8KH357GV</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Despite the use of the term 'Illinois Confederacy' to describe Illinois society, there is no indication in the written sources of intertribal political organizations such as those found among Iroquoian groups to the northeast in the same period. §REF§ (Callender 1978, 673) Callender, C. 1978. \"Illinois.\" In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 15: Northeast, edited by B. Trigger. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TD2AIF67\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TD2AIF67</a>. §REF§ Political leadership was provided by both peace chiefs - who played important diplomatic roles, such as conducting <i>calumet</i> (peace pipe) ceremonies for visitors, but had relatively little formal authority - and war chiefs, who organized raids on other settlements. §REF§ (Callender 1978, 676) Callender, C. 1978. \"Illinois.\" In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 15: Northeast, edited by B. Trigger. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TD2AIF67\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TD2AIF67</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Illinois State Museum 2000) Illinois State Museum. 2000. \"The Illinois Indians: Society: Leaders.\" MuseumLink Illinois. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/soc_leaders.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/soc_leaders.html</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/REVSHE82\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/REVSHE82</a>. §REF§ <br>In the post-contact period (specifically in the late 17th century), the Illinois formed large villages close to French forts and trading posts, most notably the Grand Village of the Kaskaskia. §REF§ (Morrissey 2015, 681-82) Morrissey, Robert Michael. 2015. \"The Power of the Ecotone: Bison, Slavery, and the Rise and Fall of the Grand Village of the Kaskaskia.\" Journal of American History 102 (3): 667-92. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZDDVHJMV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZDDVHJMV</a>. §REF§ It has traditionally been assumed that these large settlements, which included Illinois speakers from various subgroups as well as Chickasaws, Shawnees and others, functioned almost as refugee centres as the Illinois fled attacks from the Iroquois to the east and clustered together in the wake of disease and depopulation. §REF§ (Morrissey 2015, 681-82) Morrissey, Robert Michael. 2015. \"The Power of the Ecotone: Bison, Slavery, and the Rise and Fall of the Grand Village of the Kaskaskia.\" Journal of American History 102 (3): 667-92. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZDDVHJMV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZDDVHJMV</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Nichols 1998, 36-37) Nichols, Roger L. 1998. Indians in the United States and Canada: A Comparative History. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8H2XHS76\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8H2XHS76</a>. §REF§ Historian Robert Morrissey has offered an alternative interpretation, arguing that the large Illinois villages represented an aggressive 'bid for power' based on bison hunting and slave raiding and strategically positioned between the woodlands to the east and the grasslands of the west. §REF§ (Morrissey 2015, 668-69) Morrissey, Robert Michael. 2015. \"The Power of the Ecotone: Bison, Slavery, and the Rise and Fall of the Grand Village of the Kaskaskia.\" Journal of American History 102 (3): 667-92. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZDDVHJMV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZDDVHJMV</a>. §REF§ Nevertheless, what is not in doubt is that the Illinois suffered drastic population losses in the post-contact period, falling from around 12,000 people in 1680 to just 1,900 by 1763. §REF§ (Hauser 2015, 299) Hauser, Raymond E. 2015. \"Illinois.\" In Colonial Wars of North America, 1512-1763: An Encyclopedia, edited by Alan Gallay, 299-300. Abingdon: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QS4Z9FFR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QS4Z9FFR</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 28, "name": "Cahokia", "subregion": "Mississippi Basin", "longitude": "-90.062035000000", "latitude": "38.658938000000", "capital_city": "St. Louis", "nga_code": "USMO", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 24, "name": "Mississippi Basin", "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 454, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Of the following quotes, the first suggests a significant degree of inter-ethnic mixing, but it remains unclear to what extent this went hand in hand with the simultaneous presence of multiple religious traditions, whereas the second quote suggests a concerted movement towards religious and ritual homogeneity, but it remains unclear whether this implies either tolerance, persecution or a mixture of both in this period. \"Perhaps, like the situation south of the Ohio-Mississippi confluence, the diversity of ceramic styles in the American Bottom may also have resulted, in part, from the migrations of small groups into the American Bottom, co-residing with the local villagers who lived there during the tenth and early eleventh centuries. […] Such exotic potters seem to have continued using the styles of their natal communities, or at least certain attributes of those styles, sometimes producing a bewildering diversity of hybridized construction techniques and paste recipes. “At the same time as exotic potters may have immigrated into the American Bottom, there is evidence of intensive between-village intercourse in that same stretch of floodplain. […] In other words, that the pots of one’s neighbours ended up in the refuse of one’s own village probably indicates periodic inter-village feasting, with hosts and guests alternating between villages from event to event (Pauketat 2000a).\"§REF§(Pauketat 2004: 59-60) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JYTS9YS6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JYTS9YS6 </b></a>§REF§ \"We have argued in various places that one of the goals of the Cahokian leadership was, in fact, to create a virtual homogeneity through consensual ritual, religion, and social behaviors—to create a new mythic Cahokian “homeland” for its diverse population.\"§REF§(Emerson et al. 2020) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VS8Z9ZQ9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VS8Z9ZQ9 </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 27, "name": "USMisSp", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 900, "long_name": "Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian I", "new_name": "us_emergent_mississippian_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Sponemann-Collinsville-Loyd Period at Cahokia (750-900 CE) is significant for being a foundational period for later social developments at Cahokia. At this time appears the first signs of warfare, an increase in social complexity and more widespread consumption of farmed crops like maize.<br>The increase in social complexity was reflected in settlements with houses clustered into court-yard groups. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ While there is little evidence for warfare in the preceding Middle Woodland §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ from c800 CE there is evidence of inter-group violence as human bones have been recovered with arrow points embedded into them in individual and group burials. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ Some settlements even gained palisades and ditches §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ , although at this time they were present at only a tiny fraction of all sites (0.5% between 800-950 CE §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) G R Milner. G Chaplin. E Zavodny. 2013. Conflict and Societal Change in Late Prehistoric Eastern North America. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:96-102. Wiley. §REF§ ). After 700-800 CE there was a dramatic intensification of food production, particularly of maize farming, which brought higher yields and enabled more food to be extracted from a smaller territory and would lead to population growth. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ §REF§ (Iseminger 2010, 26) W R Iseminger. 2010. Cahokia Mounds: America's First City. The History Press. Charleston. §REF§ §REF§ (Milner 2006, xx) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ <br>The evidence suggests communities experienced increased differentiation of social roles, with individuals dedicated to \"community defense, organization of labor, and communal storage of maize in secure central places\". §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ The Upper Mississippi region was populated by a number of small communities. The population of largest settlement was probably in the region of 500 people - although this population was not resident at the site that later became Cahokia.<br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 28, "name": "Cahokia", "subregion": "Mississippi Basin", "longitude": "-90.062035000000", "latitude": "38.658938000000", "capital_city": "St. Louis", "nga_code": "USMO", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 24, "name": "Mississippi Basin", "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 455, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Of the following quotes, the first suggests a significant degree of inter-ethnic mixing, but it remains unclear to what extent this went hand in hand with the simultaneous presence of multiple religious traditions, whereas the second quote suggests that the period immediately following this one saw a concerted movement towards religious and ritual homogeneity, but it remains unclear whether this implies greater tolerance in this period. \"Perhaps, like the situation south of the Ohio-Mississippi confluence, the diversity of ceramic styles in the American Bottom may also have resulted, in part, from the migrations of small groups into the American Bottom, co-residing with the local villagers who lived there during the tenth and early eleventh centuries. […] Such exotic potters seem to have continued using the styles of their natal communities, or at least certain attributes of those styles, sometimes producing a bewildering diversity of hybridized construction techniques and paste recipes. “At the same time as exotic potters may have immigrated into the American Bottom, there is evidence of intensive between-village intercourse in that same stretch of floodplain. […] In other words, that the pots of one’s neighbours ended up in the refuse of one’s own village probably indicates periodic inter-village feasting, with hosts and guests alternating between villages from event to event (Pauketat 2000a).\"§REF§(Pauketat 2004: 59-60) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JYTS9YS6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JYTS9YS6 </b></a>§REF§ \"We have argued in various places that one of the goals of the Cahokian leadership was, in fact, to create a virtual homogeneity through consensual ritual, religion, and social behaviors—to create a new mythic Cahokian “homeland” for its diverse population.\"§REF§(Emerson et al. 2020) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VS8Z9ZQ9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VS8Z9ZQ9 </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 34, "name": "USMisME", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1049, "long_name": "Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian II", "new_name": "us_emergent_mississippian_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "In the Emergent Mississippian Period (900-1050 CE) the Upper Mississippi region was populated by a number of small communities. The population of the largest settlement was probably in the region of 500 people - but a population is not thought to have been resident at the site that later became Cahokia until towards the end of the period.<br>In this period the trends established in the Sponemann-Collinsville-Loyd Period continued. Maize farming was intensified and consumption increased creating higher yields and needs for storage and larger populations. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ §REF§ (Milner 2006, xx) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ Paregrine and Trubitt (2014) note that Cahokia was an excellent environment for growing maize and its geographic location meant it was easily accessible from many directions. §REF§ (Peregrine/Trubitt 2014, 20) Peregrine P, Ortman S, Rupley, E. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ It is thought that many different groups created the initial settlement at Cahokia, bringing with them a social structure. §REF§ (Peregrine/Iseminger 2014, 27) Peregrine P, Ortman S, Rupley, E. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ <br>The levels of social complexity in Emergent Mississippian societies were increasing creating specialised social roles for \"community defense, organization of labor, and communal storage of maize\". Settlements now consisted of court-yard clusters and \"toward [1000 CE], the southern pattern of civic-ceremonial centers with large earthen mounds was established in many places.\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ Warfare appears to have become established. The percentage of sites that were palisaded increased throughout this period from 0.5% 800-950 CE, to 1.5% of sites 1000 CE, to 3% of sites in 1050 CE. §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) G R Milner. G Chaplin. E Zavodny. 2013. Conflict and Societal Change in Late Prehistoric Eastern North America. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:96-102. Wiley. §REF§ The nucleated nature of the settlements themselves may also have been a \"defensive response to bow warfare.\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ <br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 28, "name": "Cahokia", "subregion": "Mississippi Basin", "longitude": "-90.062035000000", "latitude": "38.658938000000", "capital_city": "St. Louis", "nga_code": "USMO", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 24, "name": "Mississippi Basin", "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 456, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "\"As little is known of sociopolitical organization of Patrick Phase communities, even less is known of their religion and expressive culture.\"§REF§(Christiansen 2001: 260) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F8GJ2HZF\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: F8GJ2HZF </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 26, "name": "USMisPa", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 750, "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland III", "new_name": "us_woodland_5", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "2000 BCE<div>Period of population growth begins §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§ </div><br>1 CE<br><div>c1 CE \"large quantities of native cultigens began to be incorporated into midcontinental diets. §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§ </div><br>100 CE<div>Maize appears in the archaeological record §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Atlatl is the contemporary weapon §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"periodic rituals at ceremonial mound centers\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"groups ensured access to needed resources through maintenance of alliance-exchange relationships\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>200 CE<br>300 CE<div>Early arrowheads appear. \"Beginning A.D. 300-400, the bow replaced the atlatl in most regions\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>In the Mississippian region (Midwest and Upland South) the transition from atlatl to bow was \"relatively rapid because dart points disappear from the archaeological record\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Introduction of the bow in the Mississippi region decreased social complexity because it caused the collapse of the Hopewell system, the abandonment of mound centers and alliance-exchange relationships §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Bow enabled a new bow and native crops subsistence strategy which lead to a movement to and the effective exploitation of previously marginal lands and \"household autonomy\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>There followed an economic intensification and population growth which eventually \"packed the landscape with settlements.\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>400 CE<br>500 CE<br>600 CE<div>Late arrowheads appear. \"This transition to small, thin, triangular or triangular corner-notched points has long been accepted as evidence of the bow, but variation in the morphology of late arrow point types suggest that this transition was governed by social and historical factors that varied across these regions.\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Late arrowheads may indicate the technological development of fletching as they are less heavy and thick than the early arrowheads. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>First evidence of intergroup violence appears in the archaeological record (arrowpoints embedded in skeletons in individual and group burials). §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>No evidence for an increase in social complexity and hierarchy or deviation from the \"trend toward household autonomy\" at this time. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"For the first time, there is evidence, in the form of group and individual burials with embedded arrow points, of the bow as the primary weapon of intergroup violence.\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"In Middle Woodland times there isn’t much evidence for warfare.\" \"Later, after about A.D. 600 there is more evidence (scalping, embedded arrow points).\" §REF§ (Peregrine/Pauketat 2014, 16) §REF§ <br>\"Population growth, reduced access to resources, sedentism, and the desire to avoid conflict made the high costs of intensified food production more attractive.\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>700 CE<br>800 CE<div>Intensification of Maize farming begins. Higher yields from maize cultivation enables more food to be extracted from a smaller territory. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"Although there is scattered evidence for corn, or maize, during Middle Woodland times, it wasn't until Late Woodland times, after AD 700-800, that it became an important food crop.\" §REF§ (Iseminger 2010, 26) §REF§ <br>Social complexity increases from this period. \"Site plans gained greater internal complexity as houses clustered into court-yard groups and, toward [1000 CE], the southern pattern of civic-ceremonial centers with large earthen mounds was established in many places. Nucleated settlements may have been a defensive response to bow warfare. Burials with embedded arrow points and sites fortified with palisades and ditches are widespread, although no present everywhere... New social roles linked to community defense, organization of labor, and communal storage of maize in secure central places laid the foundation for the increased group differentiation, competition, and hierarchy of the Mississippian period beginning A.D. 1000.\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Palisades and ditches appear in the archaeological record. The first evidence of substantial intergroup warfare. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>\"trail networks also are important, and some of the historic east-west ones cross near Cahokia.\" §REF§ (Peregrine/Trubitt 2014, 21) §REF§ <br>Cahokia \"controlled a critical choke point in trade routes that spanned the midcontinent\" an idea that goes back to Brackenridge (1813 CE). §REF§ (Milner 2006, 12) §REF§ <br>\"The greatest environmental hazard would have been a late summer Mississippi River flood similar to the one that took place in 1993. A rise in the river at that time of the year simultaneously drowned crops, prevented easy fishing in shallow ponds, and ruined food stored in underground pits. Floods attributable to severe storms, including excessive water funnelled into the floodplain by creeks that drain the uplands, certainly caused localized disasters much like they did a century ago before effective flood-control measures were put in place.\" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) §REF§ <br>\"No other major site was as advantageously situated. Cahokia was located in what was by far the widest expanse of land suitable for settlement in the American Bottom. More people could live there than anywhere else ... The high ground where Cahokia was located was bordered on the north and south by large tracts of low-lying land that received the waters of different upland streams.\" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) §REF§ <br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 28, "name": "Cahokia", "subregion": "Mississippi Basin", "longitude": "-90.062035000000", "latitude": "38.658938000000", "capital_city": "St. Louis", "nga_code": "USMO", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 24, "name": "Mississippi Basin", "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 457, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.\"§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-11T15:19:12.221140Z", "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 418, "name": "in_gurjara_pratihara_dyn", "start_year": 730, "end_year": 1030, "long_name": "Gurjar-Pratihara Dynasty", "new_name": "in_gurjara_pratihara_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The polity of Gurjar ran from c. 730 to 1030 CE with its territory spanning approximately 1 million square kilometres; roughly corresponding to a slightly smaller area than the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar combined. §REF§ (Keay 2000: 198) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X</a>. §REF§ <br>There has been no information could be found in the sources consulted regarding the polity's overall population, but the imperial capital of Kanauj is thought to have had a population of 80,000 people at its peak in 810 - 950 CE.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "JR: Changed start year from 810 to 730 CE -- now matches the date range for ruler transitions.", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-11T12:26:04.458158Z", "home_nga": { "id": 14, "name": "Middle Ganga", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "82.700000000000", "latitude": "25.750000000000", "capital_city": "Jaunpur", "nga_code": "UTPR", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 57, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 458, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty categorises the Gupta period as one in which partisan Brahmans and their supporters began to vent bitter hostility towards the various non-Brahmanical groups, particularly the Buddhists and Jains, who for so long had received lavish patronage from Indian rulers, especially (this apparently was part of the problem) rulers from dynasties of barbarian origin. [...] Still, hard evidence of religious persecution in these ancient times is scattered and fragmentary. In the absence of more solid evidence, the view has gained ground that pre-modern India had a cultural unity that precluded communal conflict, but we think that this picture is not sufficiently nuanced. Doniger’s perception that there was widespread persecution of non-Brahmans during the first millennium may fairly represent the situation that arose at certain times, but we cannot be at all sure how widespread the phenomenon was, or at what times it was most marked.”§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 388, "name": "InGupta", "start_year": 320, "end_year": 550, "long_name": "Gupta Empire", "new_name": "in_gupta_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Gupta polity ran from 320-514 CE, with its peak considered to be around 400 CE during the reign of Skanda-Gupta. §REF§ (Keay 2010, 146) Keay, John. 2010. India: A History. New Updated Edition. London: HarperPress. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X</a>. §REF§ <br>At its largest, the Gupta empire spanned up to 900,000 square kilometres across north and south India, which it had full and direct control over, as well as southern India indirectly. The cities of Ujjain and Pataliputra seem to have both served as capital cities. While the total population is not known, the largest settlement, Pataliputra, is thought to have had a population of 150,000 people in 360 CE. §REF§ (Agrawal 1989) §REF§ , Kulke and Rothermund (2004) §REF§ (Kulke and Rothermund 2004) §REF§ and Stein (2010) §REF§ (Stein 2010) §REF§ .<br><br/>Trade flourished under the Gupta Empire both internally across India as well as through overseas trading routes with China and the Roman Empire. Among their exports were pearls, gems, diamonds and precious metals. §REF§ (Keay 2010, 146) Keay, John. 2010. India: A History. New Updated Edition. London: HarperPress. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X</a>. §REF§ <br>Common religions practiced in this polity included Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism from both the Vaisnava and Saiva Traditions, though none claimed to be the exclusive or ‘correct’ religion. §REF§ (Bisschop 2010, 478) Bisschop, Peter. 2010. “Saivism in the Gupta-Vakataka Age.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 20 (4):477-88.Seshat URL: .<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/M52PA8IW/itemKey/BHH5W2PV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/M52PA8IW/itemKey/BHH5W2PV</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-17T11:10:49.230416Z", "home_nga": { "id": 14, "name": "Middle Ganga", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "82.700000000000", "latitude": "25.750000000000", "capital_city": "Jaunpur", "nga_code": "UTPR", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 65, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 459, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.\"§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 417, "name": "in_kannauj_varman_dyn", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 780, "long_name": "Kannauj - Varman Dynasty", "new_name": "in_kannauj_varman_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Middle Ganga corresponds to the eastern portion of the Upper Ganga Plain, in the eastern part of the north-central modern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh and the state of Bihar. Between c. 650 and 780 CE, it was under the control of the Kannauj polity.<br>Like many other Indian polities between the seventh and the eleventh centuries, Kannauj was ruled by a king, who received support from a number of key ministers, and who controlled provincial territories indirectly, through a hierarchy of princes and officials (higher tier, in charge of provinces) and visayapatis (lower tier, in charge of districts). §REF§ (Mishra 1977, 137-144) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications. §REF§ <br>While no information on the polity's total population could be found, the imperial capital of Kannauj is thought to have had a population of 120,000 people at its peak in 620 CE. §REF§ (Chase-Dunn: pers. comm. 2011) §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-10T12:41:56.821133Z", "home_nga": { "id": 14, "name": "Middle Ganga", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "82.700000000000", "latitude": "25.750000000000", "capital_city": "Jaunpur", "nga_code": "UTPR", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 56, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }