Soc Vio Freq Rel Grp List
A viewset for viewing and editing Social Violence Against Religious Groups.
GET /api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?ordering=coded_value&page=2
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At one stage, a large crowd gathered to apprehend him, eventually dispelled by the forces of the Ashtarkhanid ruler ‘Ubaydullah Khan (r. 1702-1711).” §REF§ (Ziad 2021, 127) Ziad, Waleed. 2021. Hidden Caliphate: Sufi Saints Beyond the Oxus and Indus. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5VSH96D6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5VSH96D6 </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 469, "name": "UzJanid", "start_year": 1599, "end_year": 1747, "long_name": "Khanate of Bukhara", "new_name": "uz_janid_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "\"Under their rule the city and khanate crystallized into an almost classical pattern of a Muslim polity of its time, cherishing and even enhancing traditional values while ignoring or rejecting the vertiginous changes initiated by the Europeans but now reaching other parts of the world. Most khans, especially the virtuous Abdalaziz (ruled 1645-81), were devout Muslims who favored the religious establishment and adorned Bukhara with still more mosques and madrasas.\" §REF§ (Soucek 2000, 177) §REF§ <br>\"(g) Janids or Ashtarkhanids (or Toqay-Timurids: descendants of Toqay-Timur, Juchi’s 13th son); Bukhara, 1599-1785; Bosworth, pp. 290-1)x. Yar Muhammad1. Jani Muhammad (1599-1603)2. Baqi Muhammad (1603-1606), his son, 2nd generation3. Vali Muhammad (1606-12), Baqi Muhammad’s brother4. Imam Quli (1612-42), their nephew, 3rd generation5. Nazr Muhammad (1642-45), his brother6. Abd al-Aziz (1645-81), Nazr Muhammad’s son, 4th generation 7. Subhan Quli (1681-1702), Abd al-Aziz’s brother8. Ubaydallah I (1702-11), Subhan Quli’s son, 5th generation9. Abu l-Fayz (1711-47), Ubaydallah’s brother10. Abd al-Mu’min (1747), his son,6th generation11. Ubaydallah II (1747-53), Abd al-Mu’min’s brotherx. [Muhammad Rahim the Manghit, in the absence of Janid incum- bency]12. Abu l-Ghazi (1758-85), from a lateral branchEnd of Genghisid rule in Transoxania\" §REF§ (Soucek 2000, 325-326) §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 23, "name": "Sogdiana", "subregion": "Turkestan", "longitude": "66.938170000000", "latitude": "39.631284000000", "capital_city": "Samarkand", "nga_code": "UZ", "fao_country": "Uzbekistan", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 13, "name": "Turkestan", "subregions_list": "Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 626, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-02-15T11:48:15.895464Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 333, "name": "FrValoE", "start_year": 1328, "end_year": 1450, "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Valois", "new_name": "fr_valois_k_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The French crown passed to the Valois Dynasty in 1328 after a succession crisis within the ruling Capetian family, and the Valois reigned over the French kingdom until 1589 CE. Here we focus on the early Valois period, 1328-1450 CE, which was marked by the Hundred Years' War and the economic and human devastation caused by the Black Death. By the mid-15th century, the beginnings of a more modern bureaucracy had developed under Charles VII.<br>In this period, the territory of the Kingdom of France was considerably smaller than that of modern France. §REF§ (Knecht 2004, 2) Knecht, Robert J. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon and London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI</a>. §REF§ The kingdom covered 390,000 square kilometres in 1350 and 340,000 square kilometres in 1450. §REF§ (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113) Turchin, Peter and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH</a>. §REF§ <br>In response to the decline in population and production during the Black Death in the mid-fourteenth century, the crown instituted harsh financial reforms and higher taxes. This led to revolts by peasants and in urban areas. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 44) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ At the same time, the Valois faced the English Plantagenet dynasty in the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453 CE). The French suffered major defeats at Bruges (1340 CE) and Agincourt (1415 CE). Historian of France W. Scott Haine notes that, “In the darkest days of this war France’s very existence seemed in question.” §REF§ (Haine 2000, 44) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ In 1439 CE, inspired by the actions of peasant leader Joan of Arc, Charles VII of France instituted a professional standing army. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 45) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ Charles VII conquered Normandy and Aquitaine by 1453 CE, and England only maintained control over Calais.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>We have estimated the population of the French Kingdom as 12 million in 1350 CE using data from Turchin and Nefedov’s <i>Secular Cycles.</i> §REF§ (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113) Turchin, Peter and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton, University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH/</a> §REF§ The population declined drastically during the Black Plague in the mid-fourteenth century. §REF§ (Knecth 2004, 2) Knecht. Robert. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon Continuum. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI</a> §REF§ An estimated one-third of population died in the plague by 1400 CE. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 44) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ In 1450 CE, the population was only 9 million. §REF§ (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113) Turchin, Peter and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton, University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH/</a> §REF§ <br>The king and royal lineage dominated French political society. Others were divided into estates: the clergy, the nobles, and the common people. §REF§ (Knecth 2004, 8) Knecht. Robert. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon Continuum. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI</a> §REF§ During the time of the Valois there were 40,000 noble families in France- nobility was either inherited or bestowed by the king. §REF§ (Knecth 2004, 8) Knecht. Robert. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon Continuum. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI</a> §REF§ Charles VII (1422-1461 CE) began the process to modernize the crown- instituting reforms to change the government from feudal to bureaucratic. This was continued by Late Valois ruler Louis XI (1461-1483 CE). §REF§ (Haine 2000, 46) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 458, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty categorises the Gupta period as one in which partisan Brahmans and their supporters began to vent bitter hostility towards the various non-Brahmanical groups, particularly the Buddhists and Jains, who for so long had received lavish patronage from Indian rulers, especially (this apparently was part of the problem) rulers from dynasties of barbarian origin. [...] Still, hard evidence of religious persecution in these ancient times is scattered and fragmentary. In the absence of more solid evidence, the view has gained ground that pre-modern India had a cultural unity that precluded communal conflict, but we think that this picture is not sufficiently nuanced. Doniger’s perception that there was widespread persecution of non-Brahmans during the first millennium may fairly represent the situation that arose at certain times, but we cannot be at all sure how widespread the phenomenon was, or at what times it was most marked.”§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 388, "name": "InGupta", "start_year": 320, "end_year": 550, "long_name": "Gupta Empire", "new_name": "in_gupta_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Gupta polity ran from 320-514 CE, with its peak considered to be around 400 CE during the reign of Skanda-Gupta. §REF§ (Keay 2010, 146) Keay, John. 2010. India: A History. New Updated Edition. London: HarperPress. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X</a>. §REF§ <br>At its largest, the Gupta empire spanned up to 900,000 square kilometres across north and south India, which it had full and direct control over, as well as southern India indirectly. The cities of Ujjain and Pataliputra seem to have both served as capital cities. While the total population is not known, the largest settlement, Pataliputra, is thought to have had a population of 150,000 people in 360 CE. §REF§ (Agrawal 1989) §REF§ , Kulke and Rothermund (2004) §REF§ (Kulke and Rothermund 2004) §REF§ and Stein (2010) §REF§ (Stein 2010) §REF§ .<br><br/>Trade flourished under the Gupta Empire both internally across India as well as through overseas trading routes with China and the Roman Empire. Among their exports were pearls, gems, diamonds and precious metals. §REF§ (Keay 2010, 146) Keay, John. 2010. India: A History. New Updated Edition. London: HarperPress. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X</a>. §REF§ <br>Common religions practiced in this polity included Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism from both the Vaisnava and Saiva Traditions, though none claimed to be the exclusive or ‘correct’ religion. §REF§ (Bisschop 2010, 478) Bisschop, Peter. 2010. “Saivism in the Gupta-Vakataka Age.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 20 (4):477-88.Seshat URL: .<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/M52PA8IW/itemKey/BHH5W2PV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/M52PA8IW/itemKey/BHH5W2PV</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-17T11:10:49.230416Z", "home_nga": { "id": 14, "name": "Middle Ganga", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "82.700000000000", "latitude": "25.750000000000", "capital_city": "Jaunpur", "nga_code": "UTPR", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 65, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 451, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "\"Wine was also consumed in the imperial capital of Saadian Morocco a century later. Fray Matías de San Francisco observed that Christian captives obtained some small income from the production and sale of wine to the Muslims: ‘the poor Christian captives provide for themselves making some wine, and selling it to the Moors’. The friar also wrote that ‘for the Moor it is a sin to drink wine, but this sin, he says, is small […] but making wine themselves is for them a great sin, and they have great punishments for it, if it were known, and therefore the captive Christians do it, and sell it to the Moors’. This activity, though, involved some risk, since they were sometimes accused of being responsible, for example, for some natural disaster due to the great sin involved in the making of wine. As noted by Fray Matías: ‘the poor Christians also suffer great persecution, because if it does not rain on time or the storms are bad or some adverse thing happens to the Moors and the kingdom, they fall back on this as a crutch, saying it is the sins of the Christians who live there and make this wine, which they consider a great sin, and not because it is so great to drink it; it is the cause of evil’. The Jews were also victims of wine-related Muslim rage, and accusations regarding wine production and drinking were often found in Muslim texts as the preamble to an anti-Jewish attack.\" §REF§ (Ojeda-Mata 2020: 113-114) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HBD6T7K8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HBD6T7K8 </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "MaSaadi", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659, "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "new_name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "This polity represents the period in which Morocco was ruled by the Saadi dynasty. Although the dynasty itself was founded in 1511 CE, we date the beginning of the polity to 1554, when the Saadis took Fez from their dynastic rivals, the Wattasids, and united Morocco under their rule. As for the polity's end, it seems most appropriate to date it to 1659, the year the last Saadi monarch was assassinated. Between 1554 and 1591, the boundaries of the Saadi Sultanate coincided with those of modern-day Morocco. Between 1591 and 1618, the Saadi also ruled over the Niger Inland Delta, though their control over this area seems to have been nominal. After the death of Sultan Ahmad Al-Mansur in 1603, the polity entered a period of instability that ultimately led to the loss of their Niger colony. §REF§ (El Fasi 1992, 200-32) M. El Fasi. 1992. 'Morocco'. In <i>General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 200-32. London: Heinemann. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In the 16th and 17th centuries CE, the Saadis ruled through an Ottoman-style hierarchical regime. §REF§ (García-Arenal 2009, 57-58) Mercedes García-Arenal. 2009. <i>Ahmad Al-Mansur: The Beginnings of Modern Morocco</i>. Oxford: OneWorld. §REF§ Atop this hierarchy stood the sultan, followed by the wazir or vizier, usually the crown prince. Then came the sultan's council, headed by the First Secretary, who fulfilled the roles of secretary of state, majordomo and treasurer. The vice-vizier was in charge of the army and the <i>qadi al-qudat</i> (chief religious judge) headed the judiciary and appointed regional qadis.<br>The Saadi Sultanate is likely to have had a population of no more than 3 million at its peak. This is based on the earliest available population estimate for Morocco, which dates to the 20th century. According to García-Arenal, '[t]he figure can hardly have been higher in the late sixteenth century or during the seventeenth, given that the country was subject to regular and devastating epidemics of plague'. §REF§ (García-Arenal 2009, 41) Mercedes García-Arenal. 2009. <i>Ahmad Al-Mansur: The Beginnings of Modern Morocco</i>. Oxford: OneWorld. §REF§ However, it is worth noting that this estimate does not take into account the population of the Niger Inland Delta.<br><br/><br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 6, "name": "Niger Inland Delta", "subregion": "Sahel", "longitude": "-3.041703000000", "latitude": "16.717549000000", "capital_city": "Timbuctu", "nga_code": "ML", "fao_country": "Mali", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 624, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "‘‘‘ Yaniv Fox urged us to switch codes around. As there were episodes were angry mobs have destroyed synagogues during the late Merovingian period. “Jews had the same legal status as the Christian Roman population, and they were generally treated well by their Christian neighbours. [...] In general, minorities testify to the cultural diversity and vitality of Merovingian society.” §REF§ (Drews 2020, 117) Drews, Wolfram. 2020. Migrants and Minorities in Merovingian Gaul. The Oxford Handbook of the Merovingian World. Pp.117 - 138. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/95Z99GVQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 95Z99GVQ </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 306, "name": "FrMervM", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 687, "long_name": "Middle Merovingian", "new_name": "fr_merovingian_emp_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "During our second Merovingian period (543-687 CE), the kingdom was still a 'quasi-polity', consisting of numerous Frankish kingdoms under the nominal leadership of a king who had his primary residence in Paris. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 41) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35</a>. §REF§ Under the kings Chlothar II (r. 584-629 CE) and Dagobert I (r. 629-639 CE), the Merovingian kingdom reached the height of its power both internally and externally. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 140) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Morby and Rozier 2014) Morby, John E., and Charlie Rozier. 2014. Dynasties of the World. 2nd ed., online edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acref/9780191780073.001.0001. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3C5IVS6E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3C5IVS6E</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Merovingian France was a largely decentralized kingdom based on the pre-existing Roman administrative system, in which cities were the basic units. §REF§ (Loseby 1998, 245-49) Loseby, S. T. 1998. “Gregory’s Cities: Urban Functions in Sixth-Century Gaul.” In Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective, edited by I. N. Wood, 239-69. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DT5E5GNS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DT5E5GNS</a>. §REF§ The city rulers, known as counts or <i>grafio</i>, who sent the king his tax revenue and carried out judicial and administrative functions, had access to both administrative officials and city archives (<i>gesta municipalia</i>). §REF§ (Wood 1994, 204) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Loseby 1998, 245-49) Loseby, S. T. 1998. “Gregory’s Cities: Urban Functions in Sixth-Century Gaul.” In Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective, edited by I. N. Wood, 239-69. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DT5E5GNS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DT5E5GNS</a>. §REF§ Groups of cities and counts could be placed under a duke for military and administrative purposes. §REF§ (Bachrach 1972, 67) Bachrach, Bernard S. 1972. Merovingian Military Organization 481-751. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SG5XNFPG\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SG5XNFPG</a>. §REF§ <br>In contrast, there was no elaborate central administration, the highest non-royal official being a figure known as the mayor of the palace. §REF§ (Halsall 2003, 28) Halsall, Guy. 2003. Warfare and Society in the Barbarian West, 450-900. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z5EZBP2R\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z5EZBP2R</a>. §REF§ The king's capital and main residence was at Paris, where the population may have reached 30,000 by the 8th century CE, §REF§ (Clark and Henneman, Jr. 1995, 1316) Clark, William W., and John Bell Henneman, Jr. 1995. “Paris.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1314-30. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HS8644XK\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HS8644XK</a>. §REF§ although the court was always a peripatetic institution. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 150-53) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35</a>. §REF§ The king consulted a group of magnates (<i>obtimates</i>) at an annual gathering around 1 March. Written references to royal edicts are known from 614 CE onwards, but earlier royal legislation has not survived. §REF§ (Fouracre 1998, 286-89) Fouracre, P. J. 1998. “The Nature of Frankish Political Institutions in the Seventh Century.” In Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective, edited by Ian Wood, 285-316. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GT2AINW4\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GT2AINW4</a>. §REF§ Merovingian kings had the authority to appoint dukes and counts as well as bishops, who were often 'royal servants with no known connections with their sees'. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 78) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35</a>. §REF§ <br>From 622 CE onwards the basic territorial divisions of the Merovingian Kingdom were Neustria (centred on the Seine and Oise rivers and associated with the <i>Pactus Legis Salicae</i> law code), §REF§ (Wood 1994, 112-15) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35</a>. §REF§ Burgundy (where the <i>Liber Constitutionum</i> was developed), and Austrasia (by the Rhine and Meuse, which came to possess its own mayor of the palace §REF§ (Fanning 1995, 157) Fanning, Steven. 1995. “Austrasia.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 156-57. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR2MKFDX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR2MKFDX</a>. §REF§ and followed the Lex Ribvaria). §REF§ (Wood 1994, 112-15) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35</a>. §REF§ A fourth area, Aquitaine, had a special status due to its distance from the royal centres and was under less direct Merovingian control. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 100, 146) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 547, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“One should not, obviously, ignore the powerful evidence for the mutual contempt and hostility that could be projected across the religious divides – the janissaries who beat a Christian arms merchant to death in the market, shouting ‘Why are you an unbeliever? So much sorrow you are!’; the Jewish householders who mocked Christian worshippers during holy festivals; the stuffed effigies of Judas burned with much glee by the Orthodox during Easter. (Muslims were occasionally mocked in public too, but only by those who wished to become martyrs).” §REF§ (Mazower 2006, 65-66) Mazower, Mark. 2006. Salonica City of Ghosts: Christians, Muslims and Jews 1430-1950. New York: Vintage Books. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JX5W2B2S\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JX5W2B2S </b></a> §REF§“Christian society in the empire, irrespective of ethnic affiliation, perceived Jews as a group implanted by the Ottoman conquerors, and as the Sultan’s loyal servants. Even before the rise of the nationalist movements in the Balkans, this perception was sufficient to single out Jews as the enemies of Christian society in the empire. Since the Muslims’ superiority was uncontested, Jews were the only sparing partner left. The Orthodox ecclesiastical tradition lent a moral imprimatur to this attitude. Many Greek, Macedonian and Bulgarian folksongs of this time portrayed Jews as cunning, avaricious and miserly, and accused them of abducting young women and Christian children for nefarious purposes. Thus while the Ottoman Muslims saw Jews as clever, cowardly and contemptible, the Greek Orthodox saw the Jews as down right evil and dangerous.” §REF§ (Rozen 2008, 262-263) Rozen, Minna. 2008. ‘The Ottoman Jews’ In The Cambridge History of Turkey Vol. 3: The Later Ottoman Empire 1603-1839. Edited by Suraiya N. Faroqhi. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CZ6KNCP9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CZ6KNCP9 </b></a> §REF§ “Turkish reprisals were ruthless. On 29 June [1821] bishop Melhisedek Despotakis of Kisamos was hanged and the bishop of Kydonia, Kallinikos Sarpakis, was imprisoned along with his deacon Arteminos. The abbots of the monasteries were also killed. A group of incensed Muslims entered the convent of St. John the Baptist) a monastic dependency of the monastery of Gdernettos) at Korakies, near Akrotiri, and raped and slaughtered the nuns […] It was at Heraklion that atrocities reached their height. The Turks of the town asked Serif Pasha for permission to bear arms. On 23 June a Turkish ship arrived at the harbour, bearing news of atrocities in Constantinople and Smyrna against the Greeks and the hanging of the Greek patriarch. This served to trigger off the most violent massacre that Crete had known and was to remain indelibly engraved in the people’s memory. On the morning of 24 June the bishop Neophytos of Knossos, Ioakeim of Cherronesos, Ierotheos of Lambi and Spahkia, Zacharias of Siteia and Kallinikos of Diopolis. The cathedral was plundered and put to the torch. The abbots of the monasteries and other clerics were all killed. It is estimated that the number of dead on that day in Herakleion and its outlying districts was no less than 800.” §REF§ (Detorakis 1994, 295-296) Detorakis, Theocharis. 1994. History of Crete. Iraklion: University of Crete. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SRAR2RBX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SRAR2RBX </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 176, "name": "TrOttm4", "start_year": 1683, "end_year": 1839, "long_name": "Ottoman Empire III", "new_name": "tr_ottoman_emp_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Ottoman Empire during the period between 1683 and 1839 CE was at its most powerful, but was frequently beset by revolts that threatened to break it apart, particularly in Egypt. However, the dynasts in Istanbul successfully retained power behind a protective veil of elite slaves, acquired by tribute from conquered provinces and raised and educated to run the government and military. The Ottoman 'slave-elite' differed from that of the Mamluk Sultanate in that the Ottoman slaves could never achieve the position of sultan, which remained the hereditary property of the Osman dynasty. Although this failed to prevent palace intrigues or succession crises, the sultans of this period made progress toward greater unification of the empire's dense patchwork of languages and ethnicities. Trading on their successful military conquests, the Ottoman sultans claimed the title of 'caliph of all the Muslims in the world'. §REF§ (Inalcik and Quataert 1997, 20) Halil Inalcik and Donald Quataert. 1997. 'General Introduction', in <i>An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Volume One: 1300-1600</i>, edited by Halil Inalcik with Donald Quataert, 1-8. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Ottoman Empire was a hereditary dynasty under the rule of an Ottoman Sultan. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 87) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The Ottoman 'slave-elite' differed from that of the Mamluk Sultanate in that the Ottoman slaves could never achieve the position of sultan, which remained the hereditary property of the Osman dynasty. With its capital in Istanbul, the main organ of state power was the 'elaborate court, palace, and household government'. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Policy-making was weakly institutionalized: in theory, all decisions were made by the sultan himself, and so Ottoman policies were shaped by the sultan's personal character and by the 'individuals or factions who had his ear'. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The sultans appointed their own staff and paid them with a wage or (increasingly after 1600 CE) a fief. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 171) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ State funding came in large part from money raised by fief holders until Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pasha Kulliyesi introduced a property tax around 1718 CE. §REF§ (Palmer 1992) Alan Palmer. 1992. <i>The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire</i>. London: John Murray. §REF§ <br>The administrative and military officials around the sultan were slaves educated in palace schools. §REF§ (Nicolle 1983, 10) David Nicolle. 1983. <i>Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774</i>. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§ The source of this non-Turkish administrative class was the <i>devsirme</i> tribute, which began in 1438 CE; by the 16th century about 1,000 boys were taken per year per recruiting province in the Balkans and non-Muslim communities in Anatolia. The system divided these slaves into those who would serve the bureaucracy and those who would form the elite military corps known as janissaries. In 1582 CE, recruits of non-devsirme origin, including free Muslims, were permitted to join the janissaries and after 1648 CE the devsirme system was no longer used to recruit for the janissaries. §REF§ (Nicolle 1983, 9-11, 20) David Nicolle. 1983. <i>Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774</i>. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§ The imperial household together with its armies and administrative officials was truly vast, numbering about 100,000 people by the 17th century. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Ottoman sultans issued decrees to their approximately 24 million subjects through an imperial council (<i>divan</i>) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ and the chief executive power below the sultan, the grand vizier. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Although certain regions (Egypt, for example) may have differed slightly in their governing structure, Ottoman regional government typically involved governors (<i>beylerbeyi</i>) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 177-78) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ whose provinces were split into districts (<i>sanjaks</i>) under district governors (<i>sanjak beyi</i>). §REF§ (Imber 2002, 184) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The sanjak beyi also was a military commander. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 189) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Fief-holding soldiers were responsible for local law and order within their districts. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 194) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ By the late 16th century, the lowest level of this system had transformed into a system of tax farms or fiefs given to non-military administrators. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 209, 215) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ In 1695 CE, these tax farms were 'sold as life tenures (<i>malikane</i>)', and later shares in tax farms were sold to the public. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 473) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Ottoman law was divided into religious - Islamic sharia - and secular <i>kanun</i> law. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Kanun law essentially served to fill the gaps left by the religious legal tradition, regulating 'areas where the provisions of the sacred law were either missing or too much at at odds with reality to be applicable'. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ In the Ottoman Empire, this included aspects of criminal law, land tenure and taxation; kanun law drew its legitimacy from precedent and custom. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Military judges (<i>kadi'asker</i>) were the heads of the empire's judiciary and heard cases brought before the imperial council. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 157) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 550, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Notably, there was also intracommunal tension within the empire. For instance, Jews and Christians often encountered problems. Yet another journalist wrote in Serez in the Balkans, ‘Whenever a priest passed by, the Jews shouted that he did so in black with worms coming out of his mouth. In the frequent fights between the Jews and the Rum, the latter referred to as ‘Grekaya’ were always destined to lose. The Bulgarians were known as bullies while Albanians were trusted… As for the Turks, they were home owners from whom one held off.” §REF§ (Gocek 2015, 79) Gocek, Fatma Muge. Denial of Violence: Ottoman Past, Turkish Present, and Collective Violence Against the Armenians, 1789-2009. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZM8F5IE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FZM8F5IE </b></a> §REF§ “One should not, obviously, ignore the powerful evidence for the mutual contempt and hostility that could be projected across the religious divides – the janissaries who beat a Christian arms merchant to death in the market, shouting ‘Why are you an unbeliever? So much sorrow you are!’; the Jewish householders who mocked Christian worshippers during holy festivals; the stuffed effigies of Judas burned with much glee by the Orthodox during Easter. (Muslims were occasionally mocked in public too, but only by those who wished to become martyrs).” §REF§ (Mazower 2006, 65-66) Mazower, Mark. 2006. Salonica City of Ghosts: Christians, Muslims and Jews 1430-1950. New York: Vintage Books. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JX5W2B2S\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JX5W2B2S </b></a> §REF§ “On July 15, 1858, a native mob at Jeddah fell upon the Christians in their midst; among their victims were the French consul and the British vice consul. A Franco-British squadron bombarded the town eleven days later. This incident had repercussions later beyond Jeddah for it increased the fanatic zeal of the Christians, especially the Maronites of Mount Lebanon, who had been promoting a second civil war using money received by the Europeans in the first civil war to buy firearms and ammunition. In the months preceding the massacre, the European consul engaged Bishop Tobia, whose sinister influence as a promoter of the clashes against the Druze was notorious, as a missionary. This confirmed the Druze and Muslim suspicions of a conspiracy formed by the Christians, in particular the Maronite clergy, backed by interested European governments, to despoil them of their land and goods. The Maronites initiated disturbances, though the Druze, who were far superior in military tactics and discipline, retaliated as ferociously as their opponents […] Consular reports from the months of May, June, and July 1860 mention the looting and burning of villages; the sacking of monasteries, churches, and mosques; a number of forced conversions; the slaughter of children, women and older people; and the rape and abduction of women and young girls.” The following quote refers to conflict in the Ottoman Balkans “In early May 1876 an upheaval took place in the Ottoman province of Rumelia when bands of insurgents killed Ottoman officials and Muslim civilians.” §REF§ (Rodogno 2012, 98, 146) Rodogno, Davide. 2012. Against Massacre: Humanitarian Interventions in The Ottoman Empire 1815-1914. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ICHJHS7B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ICHJHS7B </b></a> §REF§ “Acts of violence perpetrated by the Turkish element of the island had let to a rise in tension. On 11 May killings and looting were carried out against the Greeks of Chania and quickly spread to the countryside around, and especially to the villages of the provinces of Kydonia and Kisamos. Similar incidents also took place in Heraklion and in the villages of Pediada. On 26 June 1896 the Turks slaughtered the monks of the monastery of St. John in Anopoli in the province of Pediada and laid waste the villages of the district.” §REF§ (Detorakis 1994, 362) Detorakis, Theocharis. 1994. History of Crete. Iraklion: University of Crete. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SRAR2RBX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SRAR2RBX </b></a> §REF§ “The Muslims gathered in downtown Chania to protest these developments. On the same day, when the cavass of the Russian Consulate, accompanied by four Christians, was on his way to Halepa, he was confronted by a gendarmerie officer who told him that it was not advisable to leave for Halepa. Angry words were exchanged. The Russian cavass fired his revolver, wounding the gendarmerie officer and killing an Arab. Immediately afterwards, the Russian cavass was killed by Muslims who just happened to be there. This incident caused panic and fear among the people and street-fighting broke out between the Muslims and the Christians of Chania. Many people from both sides were killed within a very short time. Houses were burnt and plundered, olive gardens and farms were set of fire, and mosques and churches were destroyed. Every single shop in the bazaar was closed and no one was to be seen of the streets.” The following quote discusses the Cretan revolt of 1897. “Although the causes given for the outbreak of this revolt may have differed from one source to the other, what is clear here is that the Christian insurgents took the arms of the Muslims and used them on their previous owners. Christian insurgents attacked Muslim villages and the Muslim women and children who took refuge in the mosques. In almost all the villages of Sitia, the Muslims were methodically surrounded by the Christians and massacred. The Muslim med had few arms to defend themselves. After a while, these arms were handed over to the Christian insurgents. Then the mosques were set of fire by the insurgents and most of the Muslims who gathered in the mosques were killed. Some of them took refuge in caves. The insurgents plundered the Muslim villages and sacked and burnt all their houses and other properties. Certain Muslim girls were also forcibly converted to Christianity.” §REF§ (Senisik 2011, 113-114, 156) Senisik, Pinar. 2011. The Transformation of Ottoman Crete: Revolts, Politics and Identity in the Late Nineteenth Century. London: I.B. Tauris. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/626NBKFI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 626NBKFI </b></a> §REF§ “Not only the Armenians, but also other Christian minorities had such complaints. For example, the Assyrian Patriarch, Mar Rouil Shimon, wrote an official letter to the Russian tsar, dated May 14, 1868: ‘…We are a poor nation; my people have not enough grain to provide themselves with bread…The Kurds have forcibly taken many of our Churches and convents, the constantly abduct our virgins, brides, and women, forcing them to turn Moslems…The Turks are worse, they do not protect us, demand military taxes, poll taxes, also the Kurds take our money for they consider us as ‘Zirr Kurr’ (slaves – being Christians…) …Now, such being our condition, we beseech your mightiness, for the sake of Jesus, His Baptism, and cross. Either to free us from such a state or to procure us a remedy…” §REF§ (Shirinian 2017, 24-25) Shirinian, George. 2017. ‘The Background to the Late Ottoman Genocides.’ In Genocide in the Ottoman Empire: Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks 1913-1923. Edited by George N. Shirnian. Oxford: Berghahn. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PHUNFGK9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PHUNFGK9 </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 177, "name": "TrOttm5", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1922, "long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV", "new_name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-11-20T10:36:18.319606Z", "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 554, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "VERY_RARELY_COMMENT: The following quote suggests that factional disputes within Sunnism caused civil violence. “The Seljuks are traditionally characterised by their avid support for Sunnism. This formed a key part of Seljuk propaganda, end even today continues to influence scholarly and popular perceptions of the dynasty. While older scholarship suggested that the Seljuks spearheaded a ‘Sunni revival’ after the domination of the Shi’ite Buyids, more recently this had been replaced with a view of the eleventh and twelfth centuries as witnessing a process of ‘recentring’ of Sunnism – which, its is argued, the ‘ulama’ sought to make increasingly homogenous, not least through institutions like the madrasa. At the same time, Sunnism was polarised by bitter disputes between adherents of the three law schools (madhhabs) of the Islamic east: the Hanbalis, Hanafis and Shafi’is. These madhhabs lent their name not just to factional disputes among the katibs, but to bitter rivalries that split communities in virtually every town in the Seljuk domains, frequently erupting into fitna (civil disorder). Although Ismailism was widely perceived by Sunnis in the Seljuk lands as a nuisance and a threat (Twelver Shi’ism rather less so). Shi’ites of either variety represented a minority in most areas of the Seljuk realm (parts of Arab Iraq, the northern Jibal between Sawa and Qumm, and Aleppo being the major exceptions with significant or majority Twelver populations). The greatest challenge to public order was posed rather by these factional disputes within Sunnism.” […] “Muhammad’s reign may be an aberration for it seems that while on a popular level there was plenty of anti-Shi’ite prejudice, it did not generally feed into Seljuk policy, despite the widely repeated allegation that ‘being a Shi’ite is on the way to being a heretic (rafidiyi dhiliz-i mulhidist).” […] While the following quote does not give a specific example of societal violence against a religious group it does however speak of the intense prejudices between different Sunni schools of thought. “Sometimes, these imported Hanafis were intent on stirring up sectarian prejudice, with al-Balasaghuni, the Seljuk qadi of Damascus, declaring that Shafi’is were infidels and should pay the jizya, the poll tax reserved for non-Muslims.” […] The following quote suggests that there might have been societal tension or violence. “It was not for another ninety years that a second anti-Ash’ari mihna occurred. After Sanjar ceded Rayy to Mas’ud in 537/1142-3 in the wake of his defeat by the Qarakhitay, the western Sultan entered the city and forced leading Shafi’is to disavow Ash’arism publicly. At the instigation of Hanafi ‘ulama,’ Mas’ud took further measures against Ash’arism in Baghdad and Isfahan over the next three years. Isfahani notes that as a result, ‘a group joined the madhhab of Abu Hanifa, seeking personal advancement and out of fear, not because of God [i.e., belief].” […] The following quote suggests intense social tension not necessarily violence. “Relations between the two groups was virtually unheard of. The situation was doubtless exacerbated by the fact that the Muslim authorities recognized the Nestorian Catholicus as the representative of all Christian communities, Melkites and Jacobites included. Like the Exilarch, the Catholicus owed his office to caliphal appointment, and was responsible for gathering the jizya, the poll tax.” §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 249-250, 264, 268, 282) Peacock, A.C.S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37ZDZWAR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 37ZDZWAR </b></a> §REF§ <br> MORE_FREQUENTLY_THAN_VERY_RARELY_COMMENT: The following quote suggests that factional disputes within Sunnism caused civil violence. “The Seljuks are traditionally characterised by their avid support for Sunnism. This formed a key part of Seljuk propaganda, end even today continues to influence scholarly and popular perceptions of the dynasty. While older scholarship suggested that the Seljuks spearheaded a ‘Sunni revival’ after the domination of the Shi’ite Buyids, more recently this had been replaced with a view of the eleventh and twelfth centuries as witnessing a process of ‘recentring’ of Sunnism – which, its is argued, the ‘ulama’ sought to make increasingly homogenous, not least through institutions like the madrasa. At the same time, Sunnism was polarised by bitter disputes between adherents of the three law schools (madhhabs) of the Islamic east: the Hanbalis, Hanafis and Shafi’is. These madhhabs lent their name not just to factional disputes among the katibs, but to bitter rivalries that split communities in virtually every town in the Seljuk domains, frequently erupting into fitna (civil disorder). Although Ismailism was widely perceived by Sunnis in the Seljuk lands as a nuisance and a threat (Twelver Shi’ism rather less so). Shi’ites of either variety represented a minority in most areas of the Seljuk realm (parts of Arab Iraq, the northern Jibal between Sawa and Qumm, and Aleppo being the major exceptions with significant or majority Twelver populations). The greatest challenge to public order was posed rather by these factional disputes within Sunnism.” […] “True, the highest echelons of the bureaucracy were occupied by Sunnis, Kunduri and Nizamal-Mulk. However, Tughril’s occupation of Baghdad seems to have been welcomed by the Imami population of Karkh, perhaps inspired by the long-standing Imami belief that the Turks were the soldiers of the mahdi, the saviour at the end of time. Kunduri even intervened to stop the Hanbalis from daubing Karkh with Sunni slogans at the instigation of the fanatical Hanibali caliphal vizier, Ibn Muslima. The attacks on the prominent Imami scholar Abu Ja’far al-Tusi also seem to have been orchestrated by the Hanbali masses of Baghdad, not the Seljuk officials, and the new Shi’ite centre of Najaf appears to have been allowed to flourish unmolested.” […] “Muhammad’s reign may be an aberration for it seems that while on a popular level there was plenty of anti-Shi’ite prejudice, it did not generally feed into Seljuk policy, despite the widely repeated allegation that ‘being a Shi’ite is on the way to being a heretic (rafidiyi dhiliz-i mulhidist).” […] While the following quote does not give a specific example of societal violence against a religious group it does however speak of the intense prejudices between different Sunni schools of thought. “Sometimes, these imported Hanafis were intent on stirring up sectarian prejudice, with al-Balasaghuni, the Seljuk qadi of Damascus, declaring that Shafi’is were infidels and should pay the jizya, the poll tax reserved for non-Muslims.” […] The following quote suggests that there might have been societal tension or violence. “It was not for another ninety years that a second anti-Ash’ari mihna occurred. After Sanjar ceded Rayy to Mas’ud in 537/1142-3 in the wake of his defeat by the Qarakhitay, the western Sultan entered the city and forced leading Shafi’is to disavow Ash’arism publicly. At the instigation of Hanafi ‘ulama,’ Mas’ud took further measures against Ash’arism in Baghdad and Isfahan over the next three years. Isfahani notes that as a result, ‘a group joined the madhhab of Abu Hanifa, seeking personal advancement and out of fear, not because of God [i.e., belief].” […] The following quote suggests intense social tension not necessarily violence. “Relations between the two groups was virtually unheard of. The situation was doubtless exacerbated by the fact that the Muslim authorities recognized the Nestorian Catholicus as the representative of all Christian communities, Melkites and Jacobites included. Like the Exilarch, the Catholicus owed his office to caliphal appointment, and was responsible for gathering the jizya, the poll tax.” §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 249-250, 264, 268, 282) Peacock, A.C.S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37ZDZWAR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 37ZDZWAR </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 364, "name": "IrSeljq", "start_year": 1037, "end_year": 1157, "long_name": "Seljuk Sultanate", "new_name": "ir_seljuk_sultanate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Seljuks were a Turkic dynasty from east of the Aral Sea §REF§ (Bosworth 2001) C. E. Bosworth, 'Turks, Seljuk and Ottoman' in The Oxford Companion to Military History eds. Richard Holmes, Charles Singleton, and Dr Spencer Jones (2001) (al-Rahim 2010) Ahmed H. al-Rahim, 'Seljuk Turks' in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages ed. Robert E. Bjork (2010) §REF§ who ruled a relatively decentralized empire across Central Asia, Persia and Mesopotamia - with perhaps the exception of the powerful viziership of Nizam al-Mulk. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 48) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ .<br>The Seljuk Empire (1037-1157 CE) did not have a single political center as it was divided into western and eastern halves §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 6) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ ; the east had \"connotations of seniority in Turkic culture\" §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 41) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ and Nizam al-Mulk himself started his career in the Seljuk bureaucracy in Balkh. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 48) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ The western territories were known as the Sultanate of Iraq §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 7) A C S Peacock. 2015. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ and altogether there may have been 12 million under Seljuk rule in 1100 CE.<br>Nizam al-Mulk \"strove to suppress abuses, to introduce reforms, to initiate his still uncultured Saljuk masters into the arts of Perso-Islamic statecraft, and to provide competent and reliable theologians, judges, and secretaries for the state religion and administration.\" §REF§ (Bagley 1964, xxviii-xxix) F R C Bagley. trans. Huma'i, Jalal and Isaacs, H. D. eds. 1964. Ghazali's Book of Counsel for Kings (Nasihat Al-Muluk). Oxford University Press. London. §REF§ \"Nizam al-Mulk was particularly concerned with the construction and maintenance of trade routes, caravanserais, and bridges; the appointment of trustworthy market inspectors and tax collectors; and the appointment of spies throughout the realm - policies crucial to rooting out corruption and fostering confidence in local and long-distance trade.\" §REF§ (Lindsay 2005, 20) James E Lindsay. 2005. Daily Life in The Medieval Islamic World. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. Indianapolis. §REF§ <br>Within the Seljuk system of rule the caliph was the ultimate religious authority §REF§ (al-Rahim 2012) Ahmed H. al-Rahim, 'Seljuk Turks' in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages ed. Robert E. Bjork (2010) §REF§ §REF§ (al-Rahim 2012) Ahmed H. al-Rahim, 'Seljuk Turks' in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages ed. Robert E. Bjork (2010) §REF§ and the sultan was the head of secular power §REF§ Findley, Carter V., The Turks in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), P.69. §REF§ supported by a vizier of the diwan-i a'la. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 333) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ Seljuk maliks (princes) ruled provinces with an atabeg (supervisor) and a small court bureaucracy overseen by a vizier. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 194-195) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ <br>As an independent state the Seljuk Empire came to an end when it was defeated by the Mongols and the Sultan had to pay them tribute.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-10-30T18:00:53.813428Z", "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 571, "year_from": 1607, "year_to": 1644, "description": "“The Chinese people's resistance also began from the temples and may have had a very targeted character. In Shaozhou, some \"robbers\" attacked Matteo Ricci's church, but \"they retreated with nothing to show for it to a nearby temple, where they very likely came from\"; in despair, \"they sacrificed to idols in a temple for their own cause and then jointly swore to expel Europeans from Shaozhou.\" Later, when the people of Shaozhou could no longer tolerate the smell emanating from the burning of idols by the faithful Christians, they submitted a petition to the government. This was precisely during the period when the hardline representative Nicholas Longobardi was preaching in Shaozhou. He made great progress in converting people and in destroying temples and idols, which aroused strong dissatisfaction among the local clergy and ordinary people. Just as Shaozhou was hit by a drought, people blamed the burning of the Bodhisattva statue by the Christians for the lack of rainfall, and the two sides engaged in a fierce dispute, with some even plotting to kill Longobardi. In Nanchang, faced with the threat to Chinese cultural traditions posed by missionary activities, \"scholars brought charges against the Europeans, saying that they prohibited people from revering their ancestral idols, did not leave any heirs, and caused temples to become desolate, disturbing the city and countryside.\" Many ordinary people even went to the homes of the Christians to persuade them not to abandon their own gods and ancestors. As a result, when a fire broke out in one of the Christian's homes, no one in the neighborhood went to put it out, reasoning that they had abandoned their own gods and therefore deserved to be punished by the fire. (中国民众的反击也是从寺庙出发进行的，也许具有极鲜明的针对性。在韶州，一些“强盗”袭击了利玛窦的教堂，最后“他们一无所得地撤退到附近的寺庙里，他们很可能就是从那里来的”；而且“他们在绝望中，为自己的事情在一座庙里向偶像献祭，然后他们共同发誓要把欧洲人驱逐出韶州”。后来韶州人对教徒“焚毁偶像，由此发出的气味飘进寺里”再也难以忍受，便通过正常渠道向政府递交诉状。这时正是强硬派代表龙华民（Nicholas Longobardi）在韶州传教时期，他在吸收教徒、废庙毁像方面进展很大，引起当地僧俗的强烈不满。正好韶州遭遇旱灾，人们向神祈雨不灵，便归咎于教徒之焚烧观音像，双方发生激烈争执，甚至有人密谋杀掉龙华民。在南昌，迫于传教士活动对中国文化传统的危害，“诸士人遂诉于官，谓欧罗巴人禁人敬奉祖先遗像，不留后嗣，使寺庙荒寂，城乡骚扰”。很多老百姓还跑到教徒们的家里劝他们不要抛弃本国的神癨；结果有一位教徒家里着了火，四邻也不去救，理由就是他们抛弃了自己的神，所以应该让火去惩罚他们。)”§REF§ Zhao, Shiyu. (2002). Carnival and Daily Life: Temple Fairs and Folk Society since the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Beijing: Sanlian Shudian Press. §REF§“The Nanjing anti-Christian cases of 1616 and 1621, as well as the Fujian case, were all instigated by high-ranking officials, whereas the Nanchang case of 1607, the Nanjing case of 1608, and the Fu'an case of 1608 were initiated by the folk people. The Fu'an case relied on the power of kinship, while the Nanchang case appealed to the \"public opinion of scholars,\" representing two typical modes of popular anti-Christian movements. (從教案發動者來看，1616 年南京教案、1621 年南京教案和福建教案均由高級官員發動，1607 年南昌教案、1608 年南京教案、 福安教案則起自民間。福安教案依託於宗族力量，南昌教案則訴諸 “士人公議”，分別代表了民間排教的兩種典型模式。) ”§REF§ Huang, Yun. \"The Nanchang Anti-Christian Case of 1607: Its Charges, Theories and Background.\" Journal for the Study of Christian Culture, No. 28, 2012, pp. 130-156. Beijing: Institute for the Study of Christian Culture. §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "CnMing*", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644, "long_name": "Great Ming", "new_name": "cn_ming_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "After 300 years of rule by outsiders, the Ming Dynasty, lasting from the fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries CE, restored Chinese rule to the region. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ The dynasty was founded by a peasant rebel general, Zhu Yuanzhang, later known as Emperor Taizu or the Hongwu Emperor. §REF§ (Brook 1998, 8) Timothy Brook. 1998. <i>The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Taizu destroyed the Yuan capital in Beijing, forced the Mongols to retreat to Mongolia, and founded the Ming capital in Nanjing in 1368 CE. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 191) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The period saw a resurgence of Chinese intellectualism and economic activity, §REF§ (Mote, Twitchett and Fairbank 1988, 1) Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank. 1988 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644</i>, edited by Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, 1-10. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ but Ming emperors often struggled to control their massive empire and they do not tend to number among the Chinese emperors considered 'great' by historians. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 216) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Ming expanded their territory to the southwest during their rule. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 190) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, they never expanded into Mongolia - conflict with the Mongols in the north led the Ming emperors instead to carry out restorations works on the Great Wall. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The Dynasty came to an end in 1644 CE, when the region was re-captured by descendants of Jin Dynasty's Jurchen rulers from Manchuria known as Qing.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Ming emperors were not consistent in their style of rule. While Emperor Taizu ruled as an autocrat, some Ming emperors left the governance of the nation in the hands of officials and eunuchs. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 216) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The emperor presided over the central government in concert with various levels of chief ministers and imperial officials, and the central government structure was replicated on a smaller scale at the provincial level. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ Officials were recruited through an examination system. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The period was marked by increasing openness to non-Confucian ideas and an increase in literacy among the lower levels of society. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Intellectual culture flourished among the elites §REF§ (Mote, Twitchett and Fairbank 1988, 1) Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank. 1988 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644</i>, edited by Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, 1-10. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and the publishing industry expanded greatly in the Lower Yangtze region. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 190) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Novels, including <i>The Romance of the Three Kingdoms</i> and <i>Water Margin</i>, and the play <i>Peony Pavilion</i> were written in the Ming period. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The rapid growth of the international trading system along with foreign desire for Chinese porcelain and silk led to large increases in foreign trade and an influx of silver into the Ming economy. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In the later Ming period, trade conflicts impacted China's foreign silver supply, leading to massive deflation. The Ming government, near bankruptcy, could not fund military campaigns against the rebellion spreading through the nation. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 215) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Ming population was between 60 million and 66.5 million in 1400 CE and 90 million and 110 million in 1600 CE. §REF§ 《明太祖實錄 卷140》 §REF§ §REF§ (Weatherhead East Asian Institute 2008) Weatherhead East Asian Institute. 2008. 'Issues and Trends in China's Demographic History'. Asia for Educators. Columbia University. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm</a>. 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