Soc Vio Freq Rel Grp List
A viewset for viewing and editing Social Violence Against Religious Groups.
GET /api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?ordering=-private_comment&page=2
{ "count": 222, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?ordering=-private_comment&page=3", "previous": "https://seshatdata.com/api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?ordering=-private_comment", "results": [ { "id": 557, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“First, it must be recognized that almost all of the available written sources pertain to the state cult or to the spiritual needs of the royal family. We have very little information concerning the religious beliefs and activities of the ordinary Hittite man or woman in the street.” §REF§ (Beckman 2013, 86) Beckman, Gary. 2013. ‘Hittite Religion’. In The Cambridge History of the Religions in the Ancient World: From the Bronze Age to the Hellenistic Age. Edited by Michele Renee Salzman and Marvin A. Sweeney. Vol 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sehat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/35ZH8IHU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 35ZH8IHU </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 164, "name": "TrHatNK", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1180, "long_name": "Hatti - New Kingdom", "new_name": "tr_hatti_new_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The period of the Hittite New Kingdom lasts from about 1400-1180 BCE although the dynasty that created it, originating from the city Kumbnani within the Kizzuwatna polity, came to power in the mid-fifteenth century BCE. The rulers of this dynasty were the creators of the Hittite empire, which during the reign of King Suppiluliuma I (1356-1319 BCE) and his successors achieved the greatest prosperity. In the period of its greatest splendor, the Hittite king controlled up to 400,000 squared kilometers of land including the areas of Northern Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine.<br>The central bureaucracy was relatively sophisticated: a Chief of the Scribes headed up the Hittite chancellery §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 66) §REF§ whilst a separate administrator, the hazannu, had responsibility for the city of Hattusa. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 16) §REF§ Keepers of the Royal Storehouses were also important officials. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 18) §REF§ District governors known as Lord of the Watchtower were appointed for the provinces §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 16) §REF§ whilst the conquest of Syria c1340 BCE lead to the position of viceroy being created for the important urban centre of Karkamis. §REF§ (Thuesen 2002, 45) §REF§ The power of the state was based on the army, which was great for the times - it had iron weapons, armor, and excellent war chariots.<br>During the reign of Muwattalli, Ramses II was in power in Egypt, and the war between two most powerful states in the Middle East area resulted in the first written international treaty known to us as \" Kadesh Treaty \". Although this treaty was originally written in the Akkadian language, copies in Hittite and Egyptian languages were made. Around 1200 BCE, the Hittite state probably fell under the pressure of the Sea Peoples, although a few Hittite city-states in Northern Syria survived until 708 BC.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 558, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "‘‘‘ The following quote suggests that this quasi-polity witnessed the emergence of a relatively diverse religious landscape only after colonization and the advent of Christianity, which in turn suggests the absence of societal restrictions on religion in the preceding era. 'The traditional beliefs of the Orokaiva, though in many respects vague and locally variable, focused primarily on the \"spirits of the dead\" and their influence on the living. The Orokaiva had no high god. Formerly, they were animists, believing in the existence of souls (ASISI) in humans, plants, and animals. The taro spirit was of particular importance and was the inspiration and foundation of the Taro Cult. The Orokaiva have been swept recently by a series of new cults, indicative of their religious adaptability in the face of fresh experience. Mission influence is strong in the Northern District. Religious training is provided almost exclusively by the Anglican church, although mission influence has not totally eradicated traditional beliefs, producing an air of mysticism about the resultant religious system.' Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva (2004) §REF§ Latham, Christopher and John Beierle. 2004. ‘Culture Summary: Orokaiva’. In: eHRAF World Cultures. Online: http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/V2AK2FR7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: V2AK2FR7 </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "never", "polity": { "id": 445, "name": "PgOrokE", "start_year": 1734, "end_year": 1883, "long_name": "Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial", "new_name": "pg_orokaiva_pre_colonial", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Northern Province of Papua New Guinea has long been inhabited by the Orokaiva. This is an umbrella term used to describe a number of culturally similar groups, including the Aiga, Binandele, Hunjara, Mambare, and Wasida. §REF§ (Reay 1953, 110) Reay, Marie. 1953. “Social Control amongst the Orokaiva.” Oceania 24 (2): 110-18. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FQKM3Z7S\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FQKM3Z7S</a>. §REF§ Though these groups did not have an inclusive name for themselves until Westerners coined the label 'Orokaiva', they distinguished among themselves as the river (<i>umo-ke</i>), saltwater (<i>eva'embo</i>), and inland (<i>periho</i>) peoples. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Christopher S. Latham and John Beierle. 2004. Culture Summary: Orokaiva. New Haven: HRAF. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000</a>. §REF§ The Orokaiva were primarily subsistence farmers in the period under consideration (1734-1883 CE). §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7</a>. §REF§ The first known contact with Europeans occurred in the 18th century, but the Orokaiva formally became part of a wider polity in 1888, when the British annexed the island. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Orokaiva lacked central authority and hereditary leadership. The closest thing they had to leaders were big men (<i>embo dambo</i>) and elders, who commanded the respect of their neighbours due to their personal qualities, including their ability to make wise decisions and their skill in organizing ceremonies. However, they still lacked authorities with the power to issue sanctions. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7</a>. §REF§ <br>The number of Orokaiva at the time of Western contact is unknown. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7</a>. §REF§ In the early 20th century, the anthropologist Francis Edgar Williams estimated that the Orokaiva numbered around 20,000 people. §REF§ (Williams and Murray 1930, 7) Williams, Francis Edgar. 1930. Orokaiva Society. London: Humphrey Milford on behalf of Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KUPJA2X4\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KUPJA2X4</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 35, "name": "Oro PNG", "subregion": "New Guinea", "longitude": "148.193783000000", "latitude": "-8.590711000000", "capital_city": "Oro", "nga_code": "NG", "fao_country": "Papua New Guinea", "world_region": "Oceania-Australia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 29, "name": "New Guinea", "subregions_list": "New Guinea", "mac_region": { "id": 8, "name": "Oceania-Australia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 559, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Based on the sources consulted, it seems that the earliest significant religious minorities emerged among the Iroquois in the 1640s, and Jesuit missionaries only began sustained conversion work in the late 1660s. However, given the traditional custom of \"adopting\" war captives from other tribes, and given that 17th-century Christian captives were allowed to continue performing Christian rituals, it might be reasonable to infer that captives in this era were also allowed to continue following their own native rituals and beliefs alongside those of their captors. Then again, given the significant timespans in question, it may be unwise to infer such a degree of continuity. Moreover, it is possible that differences in religious beliefs and practices may not have been a significant distinction in this era, compared to other aspects of identity. \"Sustained work among Iroquois began late in the day; a quarter century of false starts and brief attempts intervened between a Jesuit's first appearance - Father Isaac Jogues' captivity among Mohawks in 1642 - and the dispatch of French missionaries to each of the Five Nations under peace agreements of 1665-1667. [...] During the \"Beaver Wars\" of the 1640s through the 1660s, disease ravaged families bolstered the Five Nations through the wholesale adoption of war captives. Many adoptees had encountered missionaries before and had developed strong opinions - pro or con - that, to the extent their perilous position allowed, they readily shared with their hosts. [...] Throughout Iroquoia, clusters of Christian captives retained their faith and, despite the disapproval of adoptive relatives, met regularly for prayers. \"§REF§(Richter 1985: 2) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HPVINEVK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HPVINEVK </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 100, "name": "UsIroqP", "start_year": 1300, "end_year": 1565, "long_name": "Proto-Haudenosaunee Confederacy", "new_name": "us_proto_haudenosaunee", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Provide a descriptive paragraph detailing the key features of the polity, which will help understanding the codes below.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-06-27T16:20:05.802884Z", "home_nga": { "id": 29, "name": "Finger Lakes", "subregion": "East Coast", "longitude": "-77.021375000000", "latitude": "42.704980000000", "capital_city": "Seneca Falls", "nga_code": "USNY", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 22, "name": "East Coast", "subregions_list": "East Coast of US", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 560, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "I found no discussion of this in the sources consulted. The sources consulted do not indicate religion was a factor in conflicts with neighbouring populations.", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "never", "polity": { "id": 194, "name": "RuYakuE", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1632, "long_name": "Sakha - Early", "new_name": "ru_sakha_early", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Lena River Valley, also known as Sakha, is a territory in eastern Siberia over four times the size of Texas. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 1) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§ One of the coldest places on Earth, it has been home to the Sakha people since at least the 13th century CE. §REF§ (Gogolev 1992, 65) Gogolev, A. I. 1992. “Basic Stages of the Formation of the Yakut People.” Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia 31 (2): 63-69. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F428XZIE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F428XZIE</a>. §REF§ Cossacks first arrived in the 1620s, and after a long siege of a Sakha fortified settlement, the entire region was placed under tribute to the Russian czar in 1642. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 2) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§ The region remained under czarist control until the Russian Revolution, when it was one of the last Russian territories to be consolidated under the new regime. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 2) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Prior to Russian rule, the region was not politically centralized. Early Sakha communities were governed by lineage councils, clans, and elders rather than a bureaucratic state apparatus. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 7) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§ After the Russian occupation, the czarist administration imposed taxes and established an administrative infrastructure. §REF§ (Jochelson 1933, 220) Jochelson, Waldemar. 1933. The Yakut. Vol. 33. Anthropological Papers of the AMNH. New York: The American Museum of Natural History. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W</a>. §REF§ For most of the rest of its Russian history, the territory was controlled by governors under the umbrella of the czarist regime. §REF§ (Jochelson 1933, 224) Jochelson, Waldemar. 1933. The Yakut. Vol. 33. Anthropological Papers of the AMNH. New York: The American Museum of Natural History. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W</a>. §REF§ <br>It is difficult to find population estimates for Sakha. It was very sparsely populated, and according to one account of a late 18th-century expedition to the region, the district of Gigansk (in the Lena River Valley) had 4834 'tributary natives' in 1784 but only 1938 by 1789. §REF§ (Sauer 1802, 112) Sauer, Martin. 1802. An Account of a Geographical and Astronomical Expedition to the Northern Parts of Russia. London: T. Cadell, Jun. and W. Davies, in the Strand. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WEZG6MTS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WEZG6MTS</a>. §REF§ The account unfortunately does not provide figures for the entirety of the province.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 25, "name": "Lena River Valley", "subregion": "Siberia", "longitude": "129.379494854000", "latitude": "63.462822242300", "capital_city": "Yakutsk", "nga_code": "YAK", "fao_country": "Russia", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Siberia", "subregions_list": "Urals, West Siberia, Central Siberia, Yakutia", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 561, "year_from": 930, "year_to": 999, "description": "VERY_RARELY_COMMENT: “In their whole history, Icelanders have shown a striking tolerance in matters of religious belief and practice. Few Icelanders have ever been intense pagans, intense Catholics, or intense Lutherans. As far as is known, no one has ever died for his or her religious beliefs in Iceland (Finnbogason, 1943, p. 21).” §REF§ (Thomasson 1980, 174) Thomasson, Richard F. 1980. Iceland: The First New Society. Minneapolis, MI: University of Minnesota Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IPC7W6JJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: IPC7W6JJ </b></a> §REF§ “There are, however, no signs that Christians in Iceland were subjected to any direct religious persecution by the heathens, even though they did not enjoy the same rights and privileges. For this reason there are no Icelandic Christian martyrs.” §REF§ (Johannesson 2006, 123) Johannesson, Jon. 2006. A History of the Old Icelandic Commonwealth. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QSG2227N\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QSG2227N </b></a> §REF§ The following quote suggests that violent persecution of non-Christians by Icelandic leadership likely did not occur after 1000 CE: “Archaeological evidence seems to support Ari. Pagan burials are in many cases recognizable, as they contain artefacts that are not found in Christian graveyards. In Iceland, only one brooch with an 11th-century dating has been found in a grave, which indicates that pagan burial practices were abandoned around the year 1000. Narrative sources in Iceland contain no stories of serious rifts over religion in the 11th century or later. In the written law, prohibitions against heathen practices are brief and seem rather unimportant.” §REF§ (Gunnar 2000, 35-36) Gunnar, Karlsson. 2000. The History of Iceland. Minneapolis, MI: University of Minnesota Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RXUXJ2KP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RXUXJ2KP </b></a> §REF§ The followinq quote refers to restriction on witchcraft “No prosecutions for witchcraft are heard of during the first three centuries of Christianity, if we except the to-do which followed the death of Grettir, according to Grettis Saga whose account is open to suspicion. But in heathen times punishment for witchcraft seems to have been not too uncommon. Belief in ghosts and elfs, in second sight and dreams must have been general, being based on experience, and in the Stur- lung Age belief of this kind was still in full flower.” §REF§ (Sveinsson 1953, 119) Sveinsson, Einar Ol. 1953. The Age of the Sturlungs Icelandic Civilization in the Thirteenth Century. In Islandica an Annual Relating to Iceland and the Fiske Icelandic Collection in Cornell University Library. Edited by Jöhann S. Hannesson. Vol 36. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UEXE8SEI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: UEXE8SEI </b></a> §REF§ <br> MORE_FREQUENTLY_THAN_VERY_RARELY_COMMENT: In their whole history, Icelanders have shown a striking tolerance in matters of religious belief and practice. Few Icelanders have ever been intense pagans, intense Catholics, or intense Lutherans. As far as is known, no one has ever died for his or her religious beliefs in Iceland (Finnbogason, 1943, p. 21). §REF§ (Thomasson 1980, 174) Thomasson, Richard F. 1980. Iceland: The First New Society. Minneapolis, MI: University of Minnesota Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IPC7W6JJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: IPC7W6JJ </b></a> §REF§ “There are, however, no signs that Christians in Iceland were subjected to any direct religious persecution by the heathens, even though they did not enjoy the same rights and privileges. For this reason there are no Icelandic Christian martyrs.” §REF§ (Johannesson 2006, 123) Johannesson, Jon. 2006. A History of the Old Icelandic Commonwealth. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QSG2227N\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QSG2227N </b></a> §REF§ The following quote suggests that violent persecution of non-Christians by Icelandic leadership after 1000 CE likely did not occur: “Archaeological evidence seems to support Ari. Pagan burials are in many cases recognizable, as they contain artefacts that are not found in Christian graveyards. In Iceland, only one brooch with an 11th-century dating has been found in a grave, which indicates that pagan burial practices were abandoned around the year 1000. Narrative sources in Iceland contain no stories of serious rifts over religion in the 11th century or later. In the written law, prohibitions against heathen practices are brief and seem rather unimportant.” §REF§ (Gunnar 2000, 35-36) Gunnar, Karlsson. 2000. The History of Iceland. Minneapolis, MI: University of Minnesota Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RXUXJ2KP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RXUXJ2KP </b></a> §REF§ “The followinq quote refers to restriction on witchcraft “No prosecutions for witchcraft are heard of during the first three centuries of Christianity, if we except the to-do which followed the death of Grettir, according to Grettis Saga whose account is open to suspicion. But in heathen times punishment for witchcraft seems to have been not too uncommon. Belief in ghosts and elfs, in second sight and dreams must have been general, being based on experience, and in the Stur- lung Age belief of this kind was still in full flower.” §REF§ (Sveinsson 1953, 119) Sveinsson, Einar Ol. 1953. The Age of the Sturlungs Icelandic Civilization in the Thirteenth Century. In Islandica an Annual Relating to Iceland and the Fiske Icelandic Collection in Cornell University Library. Edited by Jöhann S. Hannesson. Vol 36. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UEXE8SEI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: UEXE8SEI </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 115, "name": "IsCommw", "start_year": 930, "end_year": 1262, "long_name": "Icelandic Commonwealth", "new_name": "is_icelandic_commonwealth", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Settlers arrived in Iceland in significant numbers starting from the late 9th century CE, mostly from Norway and the Norse colonies in Scotland and Ireland, bringing with them many people indigenous to the latter. However, language and culture were strongly Norse.<br>The Icelandic Commonwealth (Icel. <i>íslenska þjóðveldið</i>), occasionally called 'free state' or 'republic' (not to be confused with the modern republic) was established in 930 CE according to 12th-century historical documents. It was the first polity to cover the whole of Iceland and the smaller surrounding islands. Its territory did not change during its lifetime.<br>Icelandic society during the Commonwealth was strongly rural and never developed significant urbanization. However, centres of power, wealth and learning gradually emerged in the two bishoprics, monasteries and the homes of the greatest secular lords.<br>Iceland was mostly pagan in the early period but Christianity was accepted in 1000 and the first bishopric established in 1056. This not only brought Iceland closer to Europe but also introduced European culture and learning, and from the early 12th century the Icelanders started to produce significant works of literature in the vernacular but written in the Latin alphabet (sagas). The sagas are usually (at least recently) considered the greatest achievement of the Commonwealth and they flourished in the 13th century (both before and after 1262). However, this was also a time of war and loss of independence, making it difficult to assign it a 'peak' status.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>There are no reliable figures for the total population in Iceland during this period. Common estimates range from 5,000-20,000 in 930 to 40,000-70,000 at the end. The only statistic that is somewhat reliable states that the number of tax-paying farmers around 1100 AD was 4,560. The relationship between this number and the whole population is uncertain.<br>The Commonwealth functioned as a federation of smaller political units with no fixed borders, the godords/chieftaincies (<i>goðorð</i>), with alliances between households led by a chieftain (<i>goði</i> or <i>goðorðsmaður</i>). Laws were common to all and there was a common judiciary system. In Lögrétta leaders of all the godords met once a year to decide on laws, forming the most important part of the proceedings of the <i>Alþingi</i> ('general assembly'), held in summer at Thingvellir. However, there was no common executive branch of government, leaving the godords quite autonomous.<br>The godords started to congeal into territorial lordships with fixed borders in the 12th century (the first one perhaps in the late 11th century), but this process was most rapid around 1200 CE and by 1220 they covered most of Iceland. These lordships functioned as practically independent tiny polities (or 'proto-states') and proceeded to fight each other for supremacy. The ensuing civil wars (<i>Sturlungaöld</i>) ended in 1262 when the Icelanders swore allegiance to the Norwegian crown.<br><i>This description was provided by Axel Kristinsson and edited by Jenny Reddish.</i>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 3, "name": "Iceland", "subregion": "Northern Europe", "longitude": "-21.891497000000", "latitude": "64.133088000000", "capital_city": "Reykjavik", "nga_code": "IS", "fao_country": "Iceland", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 17, "name": "Northern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 562, "year_from": 1000, "year_to": 1262, "description": "VERY_RARELY_COMMENT: “In their whole history, Icelanders have shown a striking tolerance in matters of religious belief and practice. Few Icelanders have ever been intense pagans, intense Catholics, or intense Lutherans. As far as is known, no one has ever died for his or her religious beliefs in Iceland (Finnbogason, 1943, p. 21).” §REF§ (Thomasson 1980, 174) Thomasson, Richard F. 1980. Iceland: The First New Society. Minneapolis, MI: University of Minnesota Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IPC7W6JJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: IPC7W6JJ </b></a> §REF§ “There are, however, no signs that Christians in Iceland were subjected to any direct religious persecution by the heathens, even though they did not enjoy the same rights and privileges. For this reason there are no Icelandic Christian martyrs.” §REF§ (Johannesson 2006, 123) Johannesson, Jon. 2006. A History of the Old Icelandic Commonwealth. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QSG2227N\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QSG2227N </b></a> §REF§ The following quote suggests that violent persecution of non-Christians by Icelandic leadership likely did not occur after 1000 CE: “Archaeological evidence seems to support Ari. Pagan burials are in many cases recognizable, as they contain artefacts that are not found in Christian graveyards. In Iceland, only one brooch with an 11th-century dating has been found in a grave, which indicates that pagan burial practices were abandoned around the year 1000. Narrative sources in Iceland contain no stories of serious rifts over religion in the 11th century or later. In the written law, prohibitions against heathen practices are brief and seem rather unimportant.” §REF§ (Gunnar 2000, 35-36) Gunnar, Karlsson. 2000. The History of Iceland. Minneapolis, MI: University of Minnesota Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RXUXJ2KP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RXUXJ2KP </b></a> §REF§ The followinq quote refers to restriction on witchcraft “No prosecutions for witchcraft are heard of during the first three centuries of Christianity, if we except the to-do which followed the death of Grettir, according to Grettis Saga whose account is open to suspicion. But in heathen times punishment for witchcraft seems to have been not too uncommon. Belief in ghosts and elfs, in second sight and dreams must have been general, being based on experience, and in the Stur- lung Age belief of this kind was still in full flower.” §REF§ (Sveinsson 1953, 119) Sveinsson, Einar Ol. 1953. The Age of the Sturlungs Icelandic Civilization in the Thirteenth Century. In Islandica an Annual Relating to Iceland and the Fiske Icelandic Collection in Cornell University Library. Edited by Jöhann S. Hannesson. Vol 36. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UEXE8SEI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: UEXE8SEI </b></a> §REF§ <br> MORE_FREQUENTLY_THAN_VERY_RARELY_COMMENT: In their whole history, Icelanders have shown a striking tolerance in matters of religious belief and practice. Few Icelanders have ever been intense pagans, intense Catholics, or intense Lutherans. As far as is known, no one has ever died for his or her religious beliefs in Iceland (Finnbogason, 1943, p. 21). §REF§ (Thomasson 1980, 174) Thomasson, Richard F. 1980. Iceland: The First New Society. Minneapolis, MI: University of Minnesota Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IPC7W6JJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: IPC7W6JJ </b></a> §REF§ “There are, however, no signs that Christians in Iceland were subjected to any direct religious persecution by the heathens, even though they did not enjoy the same rights and privileges. For this reason there are no Icelandic Christian martyrs.” §REF§ (Johannesson 2006, 123) Johannesson, Jon. 2006. A History of the Old Icelandic Commonwealth. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QSG2227N\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QSG2227N </b></a> §REF§ The following quote suggests that violent persecution of non-Christians by Icelandic leadership after 1000 CE likely did not occur: “Archaeological evidence seems to support Ari. Pagan burials are in many cases recognizable, as they contain artefacts that are not found in Christian graveyards. In Iceland, only one brooch with an 11th-century dating has been found in a grave, which indicates that pagan burial practices were abandoned around the year 1000. Narrative sources in Iceland contain no stories of serious rifts over religion in the 11th century or later. In the written law, prohibitions against heathen practices are brief and seem rather unimportant.” §REF§ (Gunnar 2000, 35-36) Gunnar, Karlsson. 2000. The History of Iceland. Minneapolis, MI: University of Minnesota Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RXUXJ2KP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RXUXJ2KP </b></a> §REF§ “The followinq quote refers to restriction on witchcraft “No prosecutions for witchcraft are heard of during the first three centuries of Christianity, if we except the to-do which followed the death of Grettir, according to Grettis Saga whose account is open to suspicion. But in heathen times punishment for witchcraft seems to have been not too uncommon. Belief in ghosts and elfs, in second sight and dreams must have been general, being based on experience, and in the Stur- lung Age belief of this kind was still in full flower.” §REF§ (Sveinsson 1953, 119) Sveinsson, Einar Ol. 1953. The Age of the Sturlungs Icelandic Civilization in the Thirteenth Century. In Islandica an Annual Relating to Iceland and the Fiske Icelandic Collection in Cornell University Library. Edited by Jöhann S. Hannesson. Vol 36. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UEXE8SEI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: UEXE8SEI </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 115, "name": "IsCommw", "start_year": 930, "end_year": 1262, "long_name": "Icelandic Commonwealth", "new_name": "is_icelandic_commonwealth", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Settlers arrived in Iceland in significant numbers starting from the late 9th century CE, mostly from Norway and the Norse colonies in Scotland and Ireland, bringing with them many people indigenous to the latter. However, language and culture were strongly Norse.<br>The Icelandic Commonwealth (Icel. <i>íslenska þjóðveldið</i>), occasionally called 'free state' or 'republic' (not to be confused with the modern republic) was established in 930 CE according to 12th-century historical documents. It was the first polity to cover the whole of Iceland and the smaller surrounding islands. Its territory did not change during its lifetime.<br>Icelandic society during the Commonwealth was strongly rural and never developed significant urbanization. However, centres of power, wealth and learning gradually emerged in the two bishoprics, monasteries and the homes of the greatest secular lords.<br>Iceland was mostly pagan in the early period but Christianity was accepted in 1000 and the first bishopric established in 1056. This not only brought Iceland closer to Europe but also introduced European culture and learning, and from the early 12th century the Icelanders started to produce significant works of literature in the vernacular but written in the Latin alphabet (sagas). The sagas are usually (at least recently) considered the greatest achievement of the Commonwealth and they flourished in the 13th century (both before and after 1262). However, this was also a time of war and loss of independence, making it difficult to assign it a 'peak' status.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>There are no reliable figures for the total population in Iceland during this period. Common estimates range from 5,000-20,000 in 930 to 40,000-70,000 at the end. The only statistic that is somewhat reliable states that the number of tax-paying farmers around 1100 AD was 4,560. The relationship between this number and the whole population is uncertain.<br>The Commonwealth functioned as a federation of smaller political units with no fixed borders, the godords/chieftaincies (<i>goðorð</i>), with alliances between households led by a chieftain (<i>goði</i> or <i>goðorðsmaður</i>). Laws were common to all and there was a common judiciary system. In Lögrétta leaders of all the godords met once a year to decide on laws, forming the most important part of the proceedings of the <i>Alþingi</i> ('general assembly'), held in summer at Thingvellir. However, there was no common executive branch of government, leaving the godords quite autonomous.<br>The godords started to congeal into territorial lordships with fixed borders in the 12th century (the first one perhaps in the late 11th century), but this process was most rapid around 1200 CE and by 1220 they covered most of Iceland. These lordships functioned as practically independent tiny polities (or 'proto-states') and proceeded to fight each other for supremacy. The ensuing civil wars (<i>Sturlungaöld</i>) ended in 1262 when the Icelanders swore allegiance to the Norwegian crown.<br><i>This description was provided by Axel Kristinsson and edited by Jenny Reddish.</i>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 3, "name": "Iceland", "subregion": "Northern Europe", "longitude": "-21.891497000000", "latitude": "64.133088000000", "capital_city": "Reykjavik", "nga_code": "IS", "fao_country": "Iceland", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 17, "name": "Northern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 563, "year_from": 1566, "year_to": 1670, "description": "\"When Christians divorced themselves from ceremonies that had previously ratified their bonds to fellow villagers, they began to define themselves as a distinct people. Non-Christians treated them accordingly. During the 1670s some converts were stripped of their chiefly titles; others became targets of verbal abuse, attacks by stone-throwing boys, and physical assaults. Such violence-which went beyond ordinary sanctions of ridicule and ostracism of deviants-did not stamp out the new faith. Indeed, the early 1670s saw a steady growth in the number of native Iroquois baptisms and in the size of Christian factions. Perhaps, then, the violence should be seen not only as an effort by traditionalists to force deviants back into line but also as evidence of the formation of divergent communities within single villages. Christians were no longer the traditionalists' kinsmen. They were, in some respects, their enemies. [...] Throughout the Five Nations during the late 1670s, missionaries reportedly were 'struck, pursued in the streets, driven from the cabins, and threatened with cruel massacre, in order that war may be brought on by their death.' First to expel a priest were Cayuga traditionalists led by the headman Ourehouare, who drove Carheil from their country in 1682.\"§REF§(Richter 1985: 10-12) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HPVINEVK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HPVINEVK </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 101, "name": "UsIroqE", "start_year": 1566, "end_year": 1713, "long_name": "Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Early", "new_name": "us_haudenosaunee_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Finger Lakes region of the modern-day state of New York was once part of Iroquois territory. On the eve of European contact, this territory stretched from Lake Champlain and Lake George west to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario and from the St. Lawrence River south to the Susquehanna River. Originally, the League of the Iroquois was a confederacy of five Native American tribes (the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca), joined by a sixth tribe, the Tuscarora, in 1722, following its northward migration from the Roanoke River. This confederacy was created between 1400 and 1600 CE. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the confederacy was overall able to exploit the establishment of the European fur trade to its advantage, playing French and English interests off against one another, and gaining a major role in economic and political affairs. As a result of this, the Iroquois - particularly the Seneca - also frequently clashed with other Native tribes, such as the Huron, Petun, Neutral and Susquehannock. Eventually, the Iroquois also came into conflict with the Europeans, first with the French, then with the American revolutionaries. Starting in the 19th century, the Iroquois tribes settled on reservations in western New York state, southern Quebec and southern Ontario. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The central Iroquois League Council dealt with common affairs, while tribal chiefs and councils (as well as the female elders of their respective lineages and more recently created non-hereditary positions) occupied an intermediary position. The council included 50 men and women representing the five original tribes and had legislative, executive and judiciary powers, but it only deliberated on matters relating to foreign affairs (for example, peace and war) as well as matters of common interest to all five tribes. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE</a>. §REF§ <br>According to Gerald Reid, there were around 5,500 Iroquois at the beginning of the 17th century. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 29, "name": "Finger Lakes", "subregion": "East Coast", "longitude": "-77.021375000000", "latitude": "42.704980000000", "capital_city": "Seneca Falls", "nga_code": "USNY", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 22, "name": "East Coast", "subregions_list": "East Coast of US", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 564, "year_from": 1671, "year_to": 1713, "description": "\"When Christians divorced themselves from ceremonies that had previously ratified their bonds to fellow villagers, they began to define themselves as a distinct people. Non-Christians treated them accordingly. During the 1670s some converts were stripped of their chiefly titles; others became targets of verbal abuse, attacks by stone-throwing boys, and physical assaults. Such violence-which went beyond ordinary sanctions of ridicule and ostracism of deviants-did not stamp out the new faith. Indeed, the early 1670s saw a steady growth in the number of native Iroquois baptisms and in the size of Christian factions. Perhaps, then, the violence should be seen not only as an effort by traditionalists to force deviants back into line but also as evidence of the formation of divergent communities within single villages. Christians were no longer the traditionalists' kinsmen. They were, in some respects, their enemies. [...] Throughout the Five Nations during the late 1670s, missionaries reportedly were 'struck, pursued in the streets, driven from the cabins, and threatened with cruel massacre, in order that war may be brought on by their death.' First to expel a priest were Cayuga traditionalists led by the headman Ourehouare, who drove Carheil from their country in 1682.\"§REF§(Richter 1985: 10-12) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HPVINEVK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HPVINEVK </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 101, "name": "UsIroqE", "start_year": 1566, "end_year": 1713, "long_name": "Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Early", "new_name": "us_haudenosaunee_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Finger Lakes region of the modern-day state of New York was once part of Iroquois territory. On the eve of European contact, this territory stretched from Lake Champlain and Lake George west to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario and from the St. Lawrence River south to the Susquehanna River. Originally, the League of the Iroquois was a confederacy of five Native American tribes (the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca), joined by a sixth tribe, the Tuscarora, in 1722, following its northward migration from the Roanoke River. This confederacy was created between 1400 and 1600 CE. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the confederacy was overall able to exploit the establishment of the European fur trade to its advantage, playing French and English interests off against one another, and gaining a major role in economic and political affairs. As a result of this, the Iroquois - particularly the Seneca - also frequently clashed with other Native tribes, such as the Huron, Petun, Neutral and Susquehannock. Eventually, the Iroquois also came into conflict with the Europeans, first with the French, then with the American revolutionaries. Starting in the 19th century, the Iroquois tribes settled on reservations in western New York state, southern Quebec and southern Ontario. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The central Iroquois League Council dealt with common affairs, while tribal chiefs and councils (as well as the female elders of their respective lineages and more recently created non-hereditary positions) occupied an intermediary position. The council included 50 men and women representing the five original tribes and had legislative, executive and judiciary powers, but it only deliberated on matters relating to foreign affairs (for example, peace and war) as well as matters of common interest to all five tribes. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE</a>. §REF§ <br>According to Gerald Reid, there were around 5,500 Iroquois at the beginning of the 17th century. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 29, "name": "Finger Lakes", "subregion": "East Coast", "longitude": "-77.021375000000", "latitude": "42.704980000000", "capital_city": "Seneca Falls", "nga_code": "USNY", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 22, "name": "East Coast", "subregions_list": "East Coast of US", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 565, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "The literature consulted notes that Christianity first came to the islands in 1879, and the implication appears to be that before then there were no significant religious minorities or divisions in Trukese society, as no other religions but Trukese religion appear to have been practiced, judging from the consulted sources' silence on the matter. ‘Christian missionaries first came to Chuuk in 1879, when a mission station was established in Mwáán district on Wééné (Moen) Island by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions [Krämer 1932:37].\" §REF§ Goodenough, Ward Hunt. 2002. Under Heaven’s Brow: Pre-Christian Religious Tradition in Chuuk. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BAX6HMH7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BAX6HMH7 </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "never", "polity": { "id": 57, "name": "FmTrukE", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1886, "long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk", "new_name": "fm_truk_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Chuuk Islands, part of what is today Micronesia, were first settled in the first century CE. §REF§ (Goodenough and Skoggard, 1999. 1) Goodenough, Ward Hunt, and Ian A. Skoggard. 1999. \"Culture Summary: Chuuk.\" New Haven, Conn.: HRAF. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000</a>. §REF§ The name Chuuk, meaning \"high mountains\", comes from the Chuukese language. §REF§ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. \"Chuuk Islands.\" Encyclopædia Britannica. August 09, 2013. Accessed June 22, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands</a>. §REF§ The islands' first contact with Europeans came in 1528, when they were sighted by Spanish explorers. §REF§ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. \"Chuuk Islands.\" Encyclopædia Britannica. August 09, 2013. Accessed June 22, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands</a>. §REF§ In the late 19th century, the Chuuk islands became part of Spanish and German, then Japanese colonial regimes. §REF§ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. \"Chuuk Islands.\" Encyclopædia Britannica. August 09, 2013. Accessed June 22, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands</a>. §REF§ . After the Second World War, where the islands were a major site of conflict in the Pacific Theater, the Chuuk islands became part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific under US administration. §REF§ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. \"Chuuk Islands.\" Encyclopædia Britannica. August 09, 2013. Accessed June 22, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands</a>. §REF§ .<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the pre-colonial period, Chuuk was extremely fragmented politically. Each district had its own chiefship, which was divided between the \"oldest man in the senior female line in the chiefly lineage and the oldest man in the lineage generally.\" §REF§ Goodenough, Ward and Skoggard 1999) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E</a>. §REF§ <br>During the colonial period, the colonial governments superimposed a colonial administration onto the native system. They appointed head chiefs to lead each of the main Micronesian islands, but the individual communities remained fragmented. §REF§ (Bollig, 1927. 124) Bollig, Laurentius. 1927. \"Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People.\" Munster I W.: Aschendorff. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-022\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-022</a>. §REF§ <br>The only available population figures refer to the colonial period. In 1947, Chuuk's population was about 9,200. §REF§ (Goodenough and Skoggard, 1999. 1) Goodenough, Ward Hunt, and Ian A. Skoggard. 1999. \"Culture Summary: Chuuk.\" New Haven, Conn.: HRAF. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 34, "name": "Chuuk Islands", "subregion": "Micronesia", "longitude": "151.601918000000", "latitude": "7.351343000000", "capital_city": "Chuuk", "nga_code": "MI", "fao_country": "Micronesia", "world_region": "Oceania-Australia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 30, "name": "Polynesia", "subregions_list": "Polynesia", "mac_region": { "id": 8, "name": "Oceania-Australia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 566, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "No discussion of societal violence against religious groups was found in the sources consulted. Given the apparent religious uniformity of the Iban at this time, it seems reasonable to infer the absence of violence of any type specifically directed at minorities. “Some differences certainly exist, but those who know the Iban well are constantly impressed by the homogenous quality of their culture. Knowing that the social order and customary law are rooted in Iban religion, A. J. N. Richards, at that time Resident of the Second Division, decided in 1961 to convene in Simanggang a meeting of traditional religious leaders to discuss the standardization of Second Division (Iban) law, the formal core of the Iban way of life… After some initial hesitation, the meeting was remarkable not only for the light thrown on Iban religion but for the constructive, relaxed atmosphere which prevailed, and the direction which enabled the speakers to make their individual contributions. It was not intended to produce a canon of Iban belief, but in discussing the religious assumptions which underlie customary law, the delegates spoke at some length on most aspects of their religion and one particularly interesting conclusion was the degree of uniformity which this discussion revealed. Of course there were local variations, differing details of expression and emphasis, but, considering the distances involved and the difficulty in communication, the tradition remained remarkably uniform.” §REF§ (Jensen, 1974, 56) Jensen, Erik. 1974. The Iban and Their Religion. London: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CVIQZD7C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CVIQZD7C </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "never", "polity": { "id": 153, "name": "IdBrokE", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1841, "long_name": "Iban - Pre-Brooke", "new_name": "id_iban_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kapuasi basin is located in Western Kalimantan, in Borneo, and has long been inhabited by the Iban or Dayak. These are a river people whose culture emphasizes individual resourcefulness, egalitarianism, personal mobility, and opening new land for settlement. §REF§ (Sandin 1980, xi) Sandin, Benedict. 1980. Iban Adat And Augury. Penang: Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia for School of Comparative Social Sciences. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3I4RXPUZ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3I4RXPUZ</a>. §REF§ The Iban in fact trace their origins to the Kapuasi basin, and it was from there that they aggressively expanded their territory between the 17th and the 19th centuries, practising headhunting and slavery. §REF§ (Sutlive and Beierle 1995) Sutlive Jr., Vinson H., and John Beierle. 1995. “Culture Summary: Iban.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oc06-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oc06-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B4RV87D4\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B4RV87D4</a>. §REF§ In 1841, Iban expansion was checked by British adventurer James Brooke, of the so-called Brooke Raj. This pushed some Iban westward, while others became part of the Raj itself. The governed Iban communities were relatively autonomous in the regulation of local matters, although a colonial administrative structure was superimposed onto the Iban system. The White Rajahs sought to suppress infighting and mobilize Iban communities for their own military interests. §REF§ (Gomes 1911, 77) Gomes, Edwin H. 1911. Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo: A Record of Intimate Association with the Natives of the Bornean Jungles. Philadelphia, PA: J. B. Lippincott & Co. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N6JNADA8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N6JNADA8</a>. §REF§ With the exception of a period of Japanese control during the Second World War, §REF§ (Andaya and Andaya 2016, 261-68) Andaya, Barbara Watson, and Leonard Y. Andaya. 2016. A History of Malaysia. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VXPWW92R\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VXPWW92R</a>. §REF§ the British maintained control over this particular region up until Brunei's independence in 1984. §REF§ (Andaya 2008, 455) Andaya, Barbara Watson. 1992. “Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries.” In The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. 1: From Early Times to C. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 402-59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UQTUBXM2\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UQTUBXM2</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Before the establishment of the Brooke Raj, there were no permanent leaders among the Iban: instead, groups of family leaders directed the affairs of each house. Warriors, bards, augurs and other specialists could all become men of influence. James Brooke, as Rajah of Sarawak, created political positions, such as headman, regional chief and paramount chief, to better control Iban society, particularly in terms of extracting taxes and suppressing headhunting. Iban political organization also changed profoundly with the creation of permanent political positions and the establishment of political parties in the early 1960s. §REF§ (Sutlive and Beierle 1995) Sutlive Jr., Vinson H., and John Beierle. 1995. “Culture Summary: Iban.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oc06-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oc06-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B4RV87D4\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B4RV87D4</a>. §REF§ <br>It seems that the Iban lived in autonomous longhouse communities of about 500 inhabitants each, both before and probably for some time after the imposition of Brooke Raj authority. §REF§ (Sutlive and Beierle 1995) Sutlive Jr., Vinson H., and John Beierle. 1995. “Culture Summary: Iban.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oc06-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oc06-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B4RV87D4\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B4RV87D4</a>. §REF§ More recently, we know that the 1985 census for Sarawak estimates the number of Iban at around 439,000 people. §REF§ (Davison and Sutlive 1991, 158) Davison, Julian, Vinson H. Sutlive, and Vinson H. Sutlive. 1991. “Children of Nising: Images of Headhunting and Male Sexuality in Iban Ritual and Oral Literature.” In Female and Male in Borneo: Contributions and Challenges to Gender Studies, 153-230. Williamsburg, VA: Borneo Research Council. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5U8X7Q5P\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5U8X7Q5P</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 19, "name": "Kapuasi Basin", "subregion": "Indonesia", "longitude": "112.405971685000", "latitude": "0.774120813650", "capital_city": "Borneo", "nga_code": "KAL", "fao_country": "Indonesia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 42, "name": "Archipelago", "subregions_list": "Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }