Soc Vio Freq Rel Grp List
A viewset for viewing and editing Social Violence Against Religious Groups.
GET /api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?ordering=-name&page=2
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[...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.\"§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 91, "name": "InKadam", "start_year": 345, "end_year": 550, "long_name": "Kadamba Empire", "new_name": "in_kadamba_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kadamba dynasty ruled over a region that largely falls within the boundaries of the modern-day Indian states of Karnataka and Maharashtra. §REF§ (Moraes [1931] 1990, 47) George Moraes. 1990. <i>The Kadamba Kula</i>. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. §REF§ An absolute start date could not be found in the specialist literature. However, much is known about this polity's monarchs. Most notably, Kakushtavarma, widely regarded as the greatest Kadamba king, concluded marriage alliances with prominent ruling families (thus extending Kadamba influence over much of the subcontinent) and created an internal police force to ensure the safe movement of people from one part of the empire to another. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 47) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ After Kakushtavarma, the empire was temporarily split among his heirs, each division with its own capital: Halsi for the north and west, Triparvata for the south, and Uchchangi for the east. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 49) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ The empire was partly reunited a generation later under Ravivarma. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 48) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ However, the polity disintegrated rapidly under Harivarma, and much of its territory was seized by the Chalukyas of Badami in the 540s CE. §REF§ (Kadambi 2007, 178) Hemanth Kadambi. 2007. 'Negotiated Pasts and Memorialized Present in Ancient India', in <i>Negotiating the Past in the Past: Identity, Memory, and Landscape in Archaeological Research</i>, edited by Norman Yoffee, 155-82. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In imitation of the Satavahanas, the Kadambas referred to their leader as <i>dharmamaharaja</i> §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 38) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ The dharmamaharaja was assisted at court by a royal council and the crown prince, and in the provinces he was represented by viceroys and governors. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 38) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for this period could be found in the specialist literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 36, "name": "Central India", "subregions_list": "Deccan, etc", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 529, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Suspected unknown due to the antiquity of this quasi-polity, the nature of the data, and the fact that this aspect of the quasi-polity's culture is not mentioned in a recent and comprehensive cultural history of the Yoruba, Ogundiran 2020. §REF§(Ogundiran 2020) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ADQMAKPW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ADQMAKPW </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 664, "name": "ni_proto_yoruboid", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 300, "long_name": "Proto-Yoruboid", "new_name": "ni_proto_yoruboid", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": "“It was an era of climatic change and ecological crisis, innovation in technology and social organization, and unprecedented scale of migration. More important, the period also marked the beginning of the splitting of proto-Yoruboid into new daughter languages and dialects. [...] The adjustment to and consequences of the ecological crisis of the Archaic period also instigated other processes of cultural change that launched the proto-Yoruboid people on the path of sociopolitical and demographic differentiation from several of their proto-Benue-Kwa peers in the confluence area. Until the beginning of the first millennium AD, the proto-Yoruboid were undifferentiated from the other confluence language communities in group size, modes of subsistence, and technology. But as the nine-month dry season became the new normal in the guinea savanna and as several water sources dried up, it became more frequent for communities, households, and individuals to branch off from the older units in search of greener pastures.”§REF§(Ogundiran 2020: 42)§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-11T13:45:09.343232Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 538, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“At Aden, business interests trumped any and all potential communal divisions. While ethnic and religious communities managed their own affairs internally, when matters crossed these boundaries the city authorities adjudicated a solution. Although there was undoubtedly competition for business, and while commercial affairs were largely constructed within bounded communities, some cross-cultural partnerships also formed. A notable case involved the Jewish nakhuda Mahruz and his Indian counterpart Tinbu.” §REF§ (Alpers 2014, 54-55) Alpers, Edward A. 2014. The Indian Ocean in World History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QH5QTKXV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QH5QTKXV </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 368, "name": "YeRasul", "start_year": 1229, "end_year": 1453, "long_name": "Rasulid Dynasty", "new_name": "ye_resulid_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Yemeni Coastal Plain or Plateau refers to the north-western region of modern Yemen, lying between the Red Sea and the Yemeni Mountains. During the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries CE, the region—along with the eastern portion of southern Arabia—was ruled by the Rasūlid Dynasty. Prior to this date, Yemen had formed part of the Ayyūbid Sultanate, centered in Egypt. When the last Ayyūbid ruler of Yemen, al-Mas‘ūd Yūsuf, was summoned to govern Syria in the early thirteenth century, de facto control passed to his trusted second-in-command, the Rasūlid Nūr al-Dīn ‘Umar. §REF§ (Stookey 1978, 106–07) Robert W. Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3</a>. §REF§ The Rasūlids, a Sunnī Muslim dynasty, presided over a prosperous and largely stable period in Yemeni history, developing a centralized bureaucracy, patronizing scholarly and religious institutions, and controlling important ports of trade. §REF§ (Varisco 1993, 13–15, 21–22) Varisco, Daniel Martin. “Texts and Pretexts: The Unity of the Rasulid State under Al-Malik Al-Muzaffar.” Revue Du Monde Musulman et de La Méditerranée 67 (1993): 13–24. doi: 10.3406/remmm.1993.1584. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TV9TVUZ5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TV9TVUZ5</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Stookey 1978, 114) Robert W. Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3</a>. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for the entire polity could be found in the sources consulted, but Aden, the capital, likely had a population of c. 50,000 under the Rasūlids. §REF§ (Bidwell 1983, 14) Bidwell, Robin Leonard. 1983. The Two Yemens. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WR5RMRMQ/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WR5RMRMQ/</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 12, "name": "Yemeni Coastal Plain", "subregion": "Arabia", "longitude": "43.315739000000", "latitude": "14.850891000000", "capital_city": "Sanaa", "nga_code": "YE", "fao_country": "Yemen", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 44, "name": "Arabia", "subregions_list": "Arabian Peninsula", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 543, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“THE QOTAKALLI PERIOD in the Cuzco region covers an era between the rise of the first chiefly societies and invasion of the area by the Wari Empire. Unfortunately, this is one of the least-understood time periods of the Cuzco region.” §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 47) Bauer, Brian S. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NFKCCC8X\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NFKCCC8X </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 79, "name": "PeCuzE2", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 649, "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate II", "new_name": "pe_cuzco_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Early Intermediate Period of Andean history lasted from 400 BCE to 550 CE, §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 12) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ and is known for the emergence of regional forms of political organization, such as the Moche in northern Peru (100‒800 CE) and the Nazca in the Rio Grande de Nazca and Ica regions (100 BC‒800 CE). In the Cuzco Valley, this period saw the development of numerous chiefdoms of varying sizes. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 54) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ One of these polities is known as Qotakalli (200‒500 CE), §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 47) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ and may have controlled an area of up to 1000 square kilometres. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 59) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ <br>The period also saw a change in settlement patterns. Wimpillay no longer dominated the valley, as several new large sites grew in the west of the basin, with a possible large settlement under the modern city of Cusco. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 52) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ New settlements grew along the lower valley slopes below 3500 metres above sea level, which archaeologist Brian Bauer interprets as evidence for population growth and a possible shift in the valley's economy towards maize production. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 53) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ <br>In the Lucre Basin further to the east, the Chanapata culture still flourished in the form of small farming villages until 600 CE: Chanapata ceramics were found in the lowest strata during excavations at the site of Choquepukio. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 88) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ These polities may have centred around the sites of Choquepukio and Mama Qolda. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 52) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ Furthermore, the presence of Pucara ceramics and early Tiwanaku-related wares indicate possible contacts between the Cuzco Valley polities and the Titicaca cultural sphere, perhaps through trade, but not through political assimilation. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 88) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 143) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Although the population of the region during this period is currently impossible to determine, it is worth mentioning that 16 Qotakalli sites with an area of between 1 and 5 hectares have been surveyed, as well as 35 sites between 0.25 and 1 hectares, §REF§ (Covey 2006, 60) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ suggesting a possible two-tiered settlement pattern. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 51) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ The density of sites near modern Cuzco may indicate various groups of elite households interacting with each other within the Qotakalli chiefdom. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 52) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ <br>The chronological boundaries between this polity and the previous one are not clear-cut. Brian Bauer designates 200-600 CE as the Qotakalli period, §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 47) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ while Alan Covey states that Qotakalli appeared around 400 CE. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 59) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ Moreover, Covey refers to a settlement shift after 400 CE in the Sacred Valley (within our NGA, natural geographical area): before 400 CE, he says there was a small chiefdom with a three-tiered settlement hierarchy, and another one in the Cuzco Basin. After 400 CE the large villages were abandoned and new ones built at about 3500 metres above sea level. In the Sacred Valley, the abandoned sites represent 70% of the sample. Qotakalli pottery has been found at the new sites. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 60-63) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ Depending on the chronology used, we could postulate either continuity or cultural assimilation of the previous polity in the Qotakalli circa 400 CE.<br>What can be noted with more confidence, however, is that the 6th and 7th centuries CE saw the incursion of Wari colonies into the Cuzco valley, interacting with smaller local polities in the south and west of the valley. §REF§ (Bauer and Covey 2002, 850) B. S. Bauer and A. R. Covey. 2002. 'Processes of State Formation in the Inca Heartland (Cuzco, Peru)'. <i>American Anthropologist</i> 104 (3): 846-64. §REF§ Araway ceramics may have been one of the markers of elite status, exchanged between local chiefs and Wari representatives. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 77) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ There seems to be strong cultural continuity between the Qotakalli sites and the sites where Araway pottery is present: although Wari colonists were present in the valley, their numbers remained low and evidence suggests that they did not exert political or military dominance over other groups. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 74) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 30, "name": "Cuzco", "subregion": "Andes", "longitude": "-72.067772000000", "latitude": "-13.477380000000", "capital_city": "Cuzco", "nga_code": "PE", "fao_country": "Peru", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 32, "name": "Andes", "subregions_list": "From Ecuador to Chile", "mac_region": { "id": 6, "name": "South America and Caribbean" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 547, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“One should not, obviously, ignore the powerful evidence for the mutual contempt and hostility that could be projected across the religious divides – the janissaries who beat a Christian arms merchant to death in the market, shouting ‘Why are you an unbeliever? So much sorrow you are!’; the Jewish householders who mocked Christian worshippers during holy festivals; the stuffed effigies of Judas burned with much glee by the Orthodox during Easter. (Muslims were occasionally mocked in public too, but only by those who wished to become martyrs).” §REF§ (Mazower 2006, 65-66) Mazower, Mark. 2006. Salonica City of Ghosts: Christians, Muslims and Jews 1430-1950. New York: Vintage Books. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JX5W2B2S\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JX5W2B2S </b></a> §REF§“Christian society in the empire, irrespective of ethnic affiliation, perceived Jews as a group implanted by the Ottoman conquerors, and as the Sultan’s loyal servants. Even before the rise of the nationalist movements in the Balkans, this perception was sufficient to single out Jews as the enemies of Christian society in the empire. Since the Muslims’ superiority was uncontested, Jews were the only sparing partner left. The Orthodox ecclesiastical tradition lent a moral imprimatur to this attitude. Many Greek, Macedonian and Bulgarian folksongs of this time portrayed Jews as cunning, avaricious and miserly, and accused them of abducting young women and Christian children for nefarious purposes. Thus while the Ottoman Muslims saw Jews as clever, cowardly and contemptible, the Greek Orthodox saw the Jews as down right evil and dangerous.” §REF§ (Rozen 2008, 262-263) Rozen, Minna. 2008. ‘The Ottoman Jews’ In The Cambridge History of Turkey Vol. 3: The Later Ottoman Empire 1603-1839. Edited by Suraiya N. Faroqhi. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CZ6KNCP9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CZ6KNCP9 </b></a> §REF§ “Turkish reprisals were ruthless. On 29 June [1821] bishop Melhisedek Despotakis of Kisamos was hanged and the bishop of Kydonia, Kallinikos Sarpakis, was imprisoned along with his deacon Arteminos. The abbots of the monasteries were also killed. A group of incensed Muslims entered the convent of St. John the Baptist) a monastic dependency of the monastery of Gdernettos) at Korakies, near Akrotiri, and raped and slaughtered the nuns […] It was at Heraklion that atrocities reached their height. The Turks of the town asked Serif Pasha for permission to bear arms. On 23 June a Turkish ship arrived at the harbour, bearing news of atrocities in Constantinople and Smyrna against the Greeks and the hanging of the Greek patriarch. This served to trigger off the most violent massacre that Crete had known and was to remain indelibly engraved in the people’s memory. On the morning of 24 June the bishop Neophytos of Knossos, Ioakeim of Cherronesos, Ierotheos of Lambi and Spahkia, Zacharias of Siteia and Kallinikos of Diopolis. The cathedral was plundered and put to the torch. The abbots of the monasteries and other clerics were all killed. It is estimated that the number of dead on that day in Herakleion and its outlying districts was no less than 800.” §REF§ (Detorakis 1994, 295-296) Detorakis, Theocharis. 1994. History of Crete. Iraklion: University of Crete. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SRAR2RBX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SRAR2RBX </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 176, "name": "TrOttm4", "start_year": 1683, "end_year": 1839, "long_name": "Ottoman Empire III", "new_name": "tr_ottoman_emp_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Ottoman Empire during the period between 1683 and 1839 CE was at its most powerful, but was frequently beset by revolts that threatened to break it apart, particularly in Egypt. However, the dynasts in Istanbul successfully retained power behind a protective veil of elite slaves, acquired by tribute from conquered provinces and raised and educated to run the government and military. The Ottoman 'slave-elite' differed from that of the Mamluk Sultanate in that the Ottoman slaves could never achieve the position of sultan, which remained the hereditary property of the Osman dynasty. Although this failed to prevent palace intrigues or succession crises, the sultans of this period made progress toward greater unification of the empire's dense patchwork of languages and ethnicities. Trading on their successful military conquests, the Ottoman sultans claimed the title of 'caliph of all the Muslims in the world'. §REF§ (Inalcik and Quataert 1997, 20) Halil Inalcik and Donald Quataert. 1997. 'General Introduction', in <i>An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Volume One: 1300-1600</i>, edited by Halil Inalcik with Donald Quataert, 1-8. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Ottoman Empire was a hereditary dynasty under the rule of an Ottoman Sultan. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 87) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The Ottoman 'slave-elite' differed from that of the Mamluk Sultanate in that the Ottoman slaves could never achieve the position of sultan, which remained the hereditary property of the Osman dynasty. With its capital in Istanbul, the main organ of state power was the 'elaborate court, palace, and household government'. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Policy-making was weakly institutionalized: in theory, all decisions were made by the sultan himself, and so Ottoman policies were shaped by the sultan's personal character and by the 'individuals or factions who had his ear'. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The sultans appointed their own staff and paid them with a wage or (increasingly after 1600 CE) a fief. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 171) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ State funding came in large part from money raised by fief holders until Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pasha Kulliyesi introduced a property tax around 1718 CE. §REF§ (Palmer 1992) Alan Palmer. 1992. <i>The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire</i>. London: John Murray. §REF§ <br>The administrative and military officials around the sultan were slaves educated in palace schools. §REF§ (Nicolle 1983, 10) David Nicolle. 1983. <i>Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774</i>. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§ The source of this non-Turkish administrative class was the <i>devsirme</i> tribute, which began in 1438 CE; by the 16th century about 1,000 boys were taken per year per recruiting province in the Balkans and non-Muslim communities in Anatolia. The system divided these slaves into those who would serve the bureaucracy and those who would form the elite military corps known as janissaries. In 1582 CE, recruits of non-devsirme origin, including free Muslims, were permitted to join the janissaries and after 1648 CE the devsirme system was no longer used to recruit for the janissaries. §REF§ (Nicolle 1983, 9-11, 20) David Nicolle. 1983. <i>Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774</i>. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§ The imperial household together with its armies and administrative officials was truly vast, numbering about 100,000 people by the 17th century. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Ottoman sultans issued decrees to their approximately 24 million subjects through an imperial council (<i>divan</i>) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ and the chief executive power below the sultan, the grand vizier. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Although certain regions (Egypt, for example) may have differed slightly in their governing structure, Ottoman regional government typically involved governors (<i>beylerbeyi</i>) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 177-78) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ whose provinces were split into districts (<i>sanjaks</i>) under district governors (<i>sanjak beyi</i>). §REF§ (Imber 2002, 184) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The sanjak beyi also was a military commander. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 189) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Fief-holding soldiers were responsible for local law and order within their districts. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 194) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ By the late 16th century, the lowest level of this system had transformed into a system of tax farms or fiefs given to non-military administrators. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 209, 215) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ In 1695 CE, these tax farms were 'sold as life tenures (<i>malikane</i>)', and later shares in tax farms were sold to the public. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 473) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Ottoman law was divided into religious - Islamic sharia - and secular <i>kanun</i> law. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Kanun law essentially served to fill the gaps left by the religious legal tradition, regulating 'areas where the provisions of the sacred law were either missing or too much at at odds with reality to be applicable'. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ In the Ottoman Empire, this included aspects of criminal law, land tenure and taxation; kanun law drew its legitimacy from precedent and custom. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Military judges (<i>kadi'asker</i>) were the heads of the empire's judiciary and heard cases brought before the imperial council. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 157) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 550, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Notably, there was also intracommunal tension within the empire. For instance, Jews and Christians often encountered problems. Yet another journalist wrote in Serez in the Balkans, ‘Whenever a priest passed by, the Jews shouted that he did so in black with worms coming out of his mouth. In the frequent fights between the Jews and the Rum, the latter referred to as ‘Grekaya’ were always destined to lose. The Bulgarians were known as bullies while Albanians were trusted… As for the Turks, they were home owners from whom one held off.” §REF§ (Gocek 2015, 79) Gocek, Fatma Muge. Denial of Violence: Ottoman Past, Turkish Present, and Collective Violence Against the Armenians, 1789-2009. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZM8F5IE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FZM8F5IE </b></a> §REF§ “One should not, obviously, ignore the powerful evidence for the mutual contempt and hostility that could be projected across the religious divides – the janissaries who beat a Christian arms merchant to death in the market, shouting ‘Why are you an unbeliever? So much sorrow you are!’; the Jewish householders who mocked Christian worshippers during holy festivals; the stuffed effigies of Judas burned with much glee by the Orthodox during Easter. (Muslims were occasionally mocked in public too, but only by those who wished to become martyrs).” §REF§ (Mazower 2006, 65-66) Mazower, Mark. 2006. Salonica City of Ghosts: Christians, Muslims and Jews 1430-1950. New York: Vintage Books. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JX5W2B2S\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JX5W2B2S </b></a> §REF§ “On July 15, 1858, a native mob at Jeddah fell upon the Christians in their midst; among their victims were the French consul and the British vice consul. A Franco-British squadron bombarded the town eleven days later. This incident had repercussions later beyond Jeddah for it increased the fanatic zeal of the Christians, especially the Maronites of Mount Lebanon, who had been promoting a second civil war using money received by the Europeans in the first civil war to buy firearms and ammunition. In the months preceding the massacre, the European consul engaged Bishop Tobia, whose sinister influence as a promoter of the clashes against the Druze was notorious, as a missionary. This confirmed the Druze and Muslim suspicions of a conspiracy formed by the Christians, in particular the Maronite clergy, backed by interested European governments, to despoil them of their land and goods. The Maronites initiated disturbances, though the Druze, who were far superior in military tactics and discipline, retaliated as ferociously as their opponents […] Consular reports from the months of May, June, and July 1860 mention the looting and burning of villages; the sacking of monasteries, churches, and mosques; a number of forced conversions; the slaughter of children, women and older people; and the rape and abduction of women and young girls.” The following quote refers to conflict in the Ottoman Balkans “In early May 1876 an upheaval took place in the Ottoman province of Rumelia when bands of insurgents killed Ottoman officials and Muslim civilians.” §REF§ (Rodogno 2012, 98, 146) Rodogno, Davide. 2012. Against Massacre: Humanitarian Interventions in The Ottoman Empire 1815-1914. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ICHJHS7B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ICHJHS7B </b></a> §REF§ “Acts of violence perpetrated by the Turkish element of the island had let to a rise in tension. On 11 May killings and looting were carried out against the Greeks of Chania and quickly spread to the countryside around, and especially to the villages of the provinces of Kydonia and Kisamos. Similar incidents also took place in Heraklion and in the villages of Pediada. On 26 June 1896 the Turks slaughtered the monks of the monastery of St. John in Anopoli in the province of Pediada and laid waste the villages of the district.” §REF§ (Detorakis 1994, 362) Detorakis, Theocharis. 1994. History of Crete. Iraklion: University of Crete. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SRAR2RBX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SRAR2RBX </b></a> §REF§ “The Muslims gathered in downtown Chania to protest these developments. On the same day, when the cavass of the Russian Consulate, accompanied by four Christians, was on his way to Halepa, he was confronted by a gendarmerie officer who told him that it was not advisable to leave for Halepa. Angry words were exchanged. The Russian cavass fired his revolver, wounding the gendarmerie officer and killing an Arab. Immediately afterwards, the Russian cavass was killed by Muslims who just happened to be there. This incident caused panic and fear among the people and street-fighting broke out between the Muslims and the Christians of Chania. Many people from both sides were killed within a very short time. Houses were burnt and plundered, olive gardens and farms were set of fire, and mosques and churches were destroyed. Every single shop in the bazaar was closed and no one was to be seen of the streets.” The following quote discusses the Cretan revolt of 1897. “Although the causes given for the outbreak of this revolt may have differed from one source to the other, what is clear here is that the Christian insurgents took the arms of the Muslims and used them on their previous owners. Christian insurgents attacked Muslim villages and the Muslim women and children who took refuge in the mosques. In almost all the villages of Sitia, the Muslims were methodically surrounded by the Christians and massacred. The Muslim med had few arms to defend themselves. After a while, these arms were handed over to the Christian insurgents. Then the mosques were set of fire by the insurgents and most of the Muslims who gathered in the mosques were killed. Some of them took refuge in caves. The insurgents plundered the Muslim villages and sacked and burnt all their houses and other properties. Certain Muslim girls were also forcibly converted to Christianity.” §REF§ (Senisik 2011, 113-114, 156) Senisik, Pinar. 2011. The Transformation of Ottoman Crete: Revolts, Politics and Identity in the Late Nineteenth Century. London: I.B. Tauris. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/626NBKFI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 626NBKFI </b></a> §REF§ “Not only the Armenians, but also other Christian minorities had such complaints. For example, the Assyrian Patriarch, Mar Rouil Shimon, wrote an official letter to the Russian tsar, dated May 14, 1868: ‘…We are a poor nation; my people have not enough grain to provide themselves with bread…The Kurds have forcibly taken many of our Churches and convents, the constantly abduct our virgins, brides, and women, forcing them to turn Moslems…The Turks are worse, they do not protect us, demand military taxes, poll taxes, also the Kurds take our money for they consider us as ‘Zirr Kurr’ (slaves – being Christians…) …Now, such being our condition, we beseech your mightiness, for the sake of Jesus, His Baptism, and cross. Either to free us from such a state or to procure us a remedy…” §REF§ (Shirinian 2017, 24-25) Shirinian, George. 2017. ‘The Background to the Late Ottoman Genocides.’ In Genocide in the Ottoman Empire: Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks 1913-1923. Edited by George N. Shirnian. Oxford: Berghahn. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PHUNFGK9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PHUNFGK9 </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 177, "name": "TrOttm5", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1922, "long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV", "new_name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-11-20T10:36:18.319606Z", "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 554, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "VERY_RARELY_COMMENT: The following quote suggests that factional disputes within Sunnism caused civil violence. “The Seljuks are traditionally characterised by their avid support for Sunnism. This formed a key part of Seljuk propaganda, end even today continues to influence scholarly and popular perceptions of the dynasty. While older scholarship suggested that the Seljuks spearheaded a ‘Sunni revival’ after the domination of the Shi’ite Buyids, more recently this had been replaced with a view of the eleventh and twelfth centuries as witnessing a process of ‘recentring’ of Sunnism – which, its is argued, the ‘ulama’ sought to make increasingly homogenous, not least through institutions like the madrasa. At the same time, Sunnism was polarised by bitter disputes between adherents of the three law schools (madhhabs) of the Islamic east: the Hanbalis, Hanafis and Shafi’is. These madhhabs lent their name not just to factional disputes among the katibs, but to bitter rivalries that split communities in virtually every town in the Seljuk domains, frequently erupting into fitna (civil disorder). Although Ismailism was widely perceived by Sunnis in the Seljuk lands as a nuisance and a threat (Twelver Shi’ism rather less so). Shi’ites of either variety represented a minority in most areas of the Seljuk realm (parts of Arab Iraq, the northern Jibal between Sawa and Qumm, and Aleppo being the major exceptions with significant or majority Twelver populations). The greatest challenge to public order was posed rather by these factional disputes within Sunnism.” […] “Muhammad’s reign may be an aberration for it seems that while on a popular level there was plenty of anti-Shi’ite prejudice, it did not generally feed into Seljuk policy, despite the widely repeated allegation that ‘being a Shi’ite is on the way to being a heretic (rafidiyi dhiliz-i mulhidist).” […] While the following quote does not give a specific example of societal violence against a religious group it does however speak of the intense prejudices between different Sunni schools of thought. “Sometimes, these imported Hanafis were intent on stirring up sectarian prejudice, with al-Balasaghuni, the Seljuk qadi of Damascus, declaring that Shafi’is were infidels and should pay the jizya, the poll tax reserved for non-Muslims.” […] The following quote suggests that there might have been societal tension or violence. “It was not for another ninety years that a second anti-Ash’ari mihna occurred. After Sanjar ceded Rayy to Mas’ud in 537/1142-3 in the wake of his defeat by the Qarakhitay, the western Sultan entered the city and forced leading Shafi’is to disavow Ash’arism publicly. At the instigation of Hanafi ‘ulama,’ Mas’ud took further measures against Ash’arism in Baghdad and Isfahan over the next three years. Isfahani notes that as a result, ‘a group joined the madhhab of Abu Hanifa, seeking personal advancement and out of fear, not because of God [i.e., belief].” […] The following quote suggests intense social tension not necessarily violence. “Relations between the two groups was virtually unheard of. The situation was doubtless exacerbated by the fact that the Muslim authorities recognized the Nestorian Catholicus as the representative of all Christian communities, Melkites and Jacobites included. Like the Exilarch, the Catholicus owed his office to caliphal appointment, and was responsible for gathering the jizya, the poll tax.” §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 249-250, 264, 268, 282) Peacock, A.C.S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37ZDZWAR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 37ZDZWAR </b></a> §REF§ <br> MORE_FREQUENTLY_THAN_VERY_RARELY_COMMENT: The following quote suggests that factional disputes within Sunnism caused civil violence. “The Seljuks are traditionally characterised by their avid support for Sunnism. This formed a key part of Seljuk propaganda, end even today continues to influence scholarly and popular perceptions of the dynasty. While older scholarship suggested that the Seljuks spearheaded a ‘Sunni revival’ after the domination of the Shi’ite Buyids, more recently this had been replaced with a view of the eleventh and twelfth centuries as witnessing a process of ‘recentring’ of Sunnism – which, its is argued, the ‘ulama’ sought to make increasingly homogenous, not least through institutions like the madrasa. At the same time, Sunnism was polarised by bitter disputes between adherents of the three law schools (madhhabs) of the Islamic east: the Hanbalis, Hanafis and Shafi’is. These madhhabs lent their name not just to factional disputes among the katibs, but to bitter rivalries that split communities in virtually every town in the Seljuk domains, frequently erupting into fitna (civil disorder). Although Ismailism was widely perceived by Sunnis in the Seljuk lands as a nuisance and a threat (Twelver Shi’ism rather less so). Shi’ites of either variety represented a minority in most areas of the Seljuk realm (parts of Arab Iraq, the northern Jibal between Sawa and Qumm, and Aleppo being the major exceptions with significant or majority Twelver populations). The greatest challenge to public order was posed rather by these factional disputes within Sunnism.” […] “True, the highest echelons of the bureaucracy were occupied by Sunnis, Kunduri and Nizamal-Mulk. However, Tughril’s occupation of Baghdad seems to have been welcomed by the Imami population of Karkh, perhaps inspired by the long-standing Imami belief that the Turks were the soldiers of the mahdi, the saviour at the end of time. Kunduri even intervened to stop the Hanbalis from daubing Karkh with Sunni slogans at the instigation of the fanatical Hanibali caliphal vizier, Ibn Muslima. The attacks on the prominent Imami scholar Abu Ja’far al-Tusi also seem to have been orchestrated by the Hanbali masses of Baghdad, not the Seljuk officials, and the new Shi’ite centre of Najaf appears to have been allowed to flourish unmolested.” […] “Muhammad’s reign may be an aberration for it seems that while on a popular level there was plenty of anti-Shi’ite prejudice, it did not generally feed into Seljuk policy, despite the widely repeated allegation that ‘being a Shi’ite is on the way to being a heretic (rafidiyi dhiliz-i mulhidist).” […] While the following quote does not give a specific example of societal violence against a religious group it does however speak of the intense prejudices between different Sunni schools of thought. “Sometimes, these imported Hanafis were intent on stirring up sectarian prejudice, with al-Balasaghuni, the Seljuk qadi of Damascus, declaring that Shafi’is were infidels and should pay the jizya, the poll tax reserved for non-Muslims.” […] The following quote suggests that there might have been societal tension or violence. “It was not for another ninety years that a second anti-Ash’ari mihna occurred. After Sanjar ceded Rayy to Mas’ud in 537/1142-3 in the wake of his defeat by the Qarakhitay, the western Sultan entered the city and forced leading Shafi’is to disavow Ash’arism publicly. At the instigation of Hanafi ‘ulama,’ Mas’ud took further measures against Ash’arism in Baghdad and Isfahan over the next three years. Isfahani notes that as a result, ‘a group joined the madhhab of Abu Hanifa, seeking personal advancement and out of fear, not because of God [i.e., belief].” […] The following quote suggests intense social tension not necessarily violence. “Relations between the two groups was virtually unheard of. The situation was doubtless exacerbated by the fact that the Muslim authorities recognized the Nestorian Catholicus as the representative of all Christian communities, Melkites and Jacobites included. Like the Exilarch, the Catholicus owed his office to caliphal appointment, and was responsible for gathering the jizya, the poll tax.” §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 249-250, 264, 268, 282) Peacock, A.C.S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37ZDZWAR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 37ZDZWAR </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 364, "name": "IrSeljq", "start_year": 1037, "end_year": 1157, "long_name": "Seljuk Sultanate", "new_name": "ir_seljuk_sultanate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Seljuks were a Turkic dynasty from east of the Aral Sea §REF§ (Bosworth 2001) C. E. Bosworth, 'Turks, Seljuk and Ottoman' in The Oxford Companion to Military History eds. Richard Holmes, Charles Singleton, and Dr Spencer Jones (2001) (al-Rahim 2010) Ahmed H. al-Rahim, 'Seljuk Turks' in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages ed. Robert E. Bjork (2010) §REF§ who ruled a relatively decentralized empire across Central Asia, Persia and Mesopotamia - with perhaps the exception of the powerful viziership of Nizam al-Mulk. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 48) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ .<br>The Seljuk Empire (1037-1157 CE) did not have a single political center as it was divided into western and eastern halves §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 6) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ ; the east had \"connotations of seniority in Turkic culture\" §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 41) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ and Nizam al-Mulk himself started his career in the Seljuk bureaucracy in Balkh. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 48) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ The western territories were known as the Sultanate of Iraq §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 7) A C S Peacock. 2015. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ and altogether there may have been 12 million under Seljuk rule in 1100 CE.<br>Nizam al-Mulk \"strove to suppress abuses, to introduce reforms, to initiate his still uncultured Saljuk masters into the arts of Perso-Islamic statecraft, and to provide competent and reliable theologians, judges, and secretaries for the state religion and administration.\" §REF§ (Bagley 1964, xxviii-xxix) F R C Bagley. trans. Huma'i, Jalal and Isaacs, H. D. eds. 1964. Ghazali's Book of Counsel for Kings (Nasihat Al-Muluk). Oxford University Press. London. §REF§ \"Nizam al-Mulk was particularly concerned with the construction and maintenance of trade routes, caravanserais, and bridges; the appointment of trustworthy market inspectors and tax collectors; and the appointment of spies throughout the realm - policies crucial to rooting out corruption and fostering confidence in local and long-distance trade.\" §REF§ (Lindsay 2005, 20) James E Lindsay. 2005. Daily Life in The Medieval Islamic World. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. Indianapolis. §REF§ <br>Within the Seljuk system of rule the caliph was the ultimate religious authority §REF§ (al-Rahim 2012) Ahmed H. al-Rahim, 'Seljuk Turks' in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages ed. Robert E. Bjork (2010) §REF§ §REF§ (al-Rahim 2012) Ahmed H. al-Rahim, 'Seljuk Turks' in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages ed. Robert E. Bjork (2010) §REF§ and the sultan was the head of secular power §REF§ Findley, Carter V., The Turks in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), P.69. §REF§ supported by a vizier of the diwan-i a'la. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 333) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ Seljuk maliks (princes) ruled provinces with an atabeg (supervisor) and a small court bureaucracy overseen by a vizier. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 194-195) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ <br>As an independent state the Seljuk Empire came to an end when it was defeated by the Mongols and the Sultan had to pay them tribute.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-10-30T18:00:53.813428Z", "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 570, "year_from": 1368, "year_to": 1606, "description": "“The Chinese people's resistance also began from the temples and may have had a very targeted character. In Shaozhou, some \"robbers\" attacked Matteo Ricci's church, but \"they retreated with nothing to show for it to a nearby temple, where they very likely came from\"; in despair, \"they sacrificed to idols in a temple for their own cause and then jointly swore to expel Europeans from Shaozhou.\" Later, when the people of Shaozhou could no longer tolerate the smell emanating from the burning of idols by the faithful Christians, they submitted a petition to the government. This was precisely during the period when the hardline representative Nicholas Longobardi was preaching in Shaozhou. He made great progress in converting people and in destroying temples and idols, which aroused strong dissatisfaction among the local clergy and ordinary people. Just as Shaozhou was hit by a drought, people blamed the burning of the Bodhisattva statue by the Christians for the lack of rainfall, and the two sides engaged in a fierce dispute, with some even plotting to kill Longobardi. In Nanchang, faced with the threat to Chinese cultural traditions posed by missionary activities, \"scholars brought charges against the Europeans, saying that they prohibited people from revering their ancestral idols, did not leave any heirs, and caused temples to become desolate, disturbing the city and countryside.\" Many ordinary people even went to the homes of the Christians to persuade them not to abandon their own gods and ancestors. As a result, when a fire broke out in one of the Christian's homes, no one in the neighborhood went to put it out, reasoning that they had abandoned their own gods and therefore deserved to be punished by the fire. (中国民众的反击也是从寺庙出发进行的，也许具有极鲜明的针对性。在韶州，一些“强盗”袭击了利玛窦的教堂，最后“他们一无所得地撤退到附近的寺庙里，他们很可能就是从那里来的”；而且“他们在绝望中，为自己的事情在一座庙里向偶像献祭，然后他们共同发誓要把欧洲人驱逐出韶州”。后来韶州人对教徒“焚毁偶像，由此发出的气味飘进寺里”再也难以忍受，便通过正常渠道向政府递交诉状。这时正是强硬派代表龙华民（Nicholas Longobardi）在韶州传教时期，他在吸收教徒、废庙毁像方面进展很大，引起当地僧俗的强烈不满。正好韶州遭遇旱灾，人们向神祈雨不灵，便归咎于教徒之焚烧观音像，双方发生激烈争执，甚至有人密谋杀掉龙华民。在南昌，迫于传教士活动对中国文化传统的危害，“诸士人遂诉于官，谓欧罗巴人禁人敬奉祖先遗像，不留后嗣，使寺庙荒寂，城乡骚扰”。很多老百姓还跑到教徒们的家里劝他们不要抛弃本国的神癨；结果有一位教徒家里着了火，四邻也不去救，理由就是他们抛弃了自己的神，所以应该让火去惩罚他们。)”§REF§ Zhao, Shiyu. (2002). Carnival and Daily Life: Temple Fairs and Folk Society since the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Beijing: Sanlian Shudian Press. §REF§“The Nanjing anti-Christian cases of 1616 and 1621, as well as the Fujian case, were all instigated by high-ranking officials, whereas the Nanchang case of 1607, the Nanjing case of 1608, and the Fu'an case of 1608 were initiated by the folk people. The Fu'an case relied on the power of kinship, while the Nanchang case appealed to the \"public opinion of scholars,\" representing two typical modes of popular anti-Christian movements. (從教案發動者來看，1616 年南京教案、1621 年南京教案和福建教案均由高級官員發動，1607 年南昌教案、1608 年南京教案、 福安教案則起自民間。福安教案依託於宗族力量，南昌教案則訴諸 “士人公議”，分別代表了民間排教的兩種典型模式。) ”§REF§ Huang, Yun. \"The Nanchang Anti-Christian Case of 1607: Its Charges, Theories and Background.\" Journal for the Study of Christian Culture, No. 28, 2012, pp. 130-156. Beijing: Institute for the Study of Christian Culture. §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "CnMing*", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644, "long_name": "Great Ming", "new_name": "cn_ming_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "After 300 years of rule by outsiders, the Ming Dynasty, lasting from the fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries CE, restored Chinese rule to the region. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ The dynasty was founded by a peasant rebel general, Zhu Yuanzhang, later known as Emperor Taizu or the Hongwu Emperor. §REF§ (Brook 1998, 8) Timothy Brook. 1998. <i>The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Taizu destroyed the Yuan capital in Beijing, forced the Mongols to retreat to Mongolia, and founded the Ming capital in Nanjing in 1368 CE. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 191) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The period saw a resurgence of Chinese intellectualism and economic activity, §REF§ (Mote, Twitchett and Fairbank 1988, 1) Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank. 1988 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644</i>, edited by Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, 1-10. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ but Ming emperors often struggled to control their massive empire and they do not tend to number among the Chinese emperors considered 'great' by historians. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 216) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Ming expanded their territory to the southwest during their rule. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 190) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, they never expanded into Mongolia - conflict with the Mongols in the north led the Ming emperors instead to carry out restorations works on the Great Wall. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The Dynasty came to an end in 1644 CE, when the region was re-captured by descendants of Jin Dynasty's Jurchen rulers from Manchuria known as Qing.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Ming emperors were not consistent in their style of rule. While Emperor Taizu ruled as an autocrat, some Ming emperors left the governance of the nation in the hands of officials and eunuchs. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 216) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The emperor presided over the central government in concert with various levels of chief ministers and imperial officials, and the central government structure was replicated on a smaller scale at the provincial level. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ Officials were recruited through an examination system. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The period was marked by increasing openness to non-Confucian ideas and an increase in literacy among the lower levels of society. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Intellectual culture flourished among the elites §REF§ (Mote, Twitchett and Fairbank 1988, 1) Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank. 1988 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644</i>, edited by Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, 1-10. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and the publishing industry expanded greatly in the Lower Yangtze region. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 190) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Novels, including <i>The Romance of the Three Kingdoms</i> and <i>Water Margin</i>, and the play <i>Peony Pavilion</i> were written in the Ming period. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The rapid growth of the international trading system along with foreign desire for Chinese porcelain and silk led to large increases in foreign trade and an influx of silver into the Ming economy. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In the later Ming period, trade conflicts impacted China's foreign silver supply, leading to massive deflation. The Ming government, near bankruptcy, could not fund military campaigns against the rebellion spreading through the nation. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 215) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Ming population was between 60 million and 66.5 million in 1400 CE and 90 million and 110 million in 1600 CE. §REF§ 《明太祖實錄 卷140》 §REF§ §REF§ (Weatherhead East Asian Institute 2008) Weatherhead East Asian Institute. 2008. 'Issues and Trends in China's Demographic History'. Asia for Educators. Columbia University. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-17T15:39:57.138564Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 660, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-06-10T10:37:44.864555Z", "modified_date": "2024-06-13T09:40:21.811566Z", "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "never", "polity": { "id": 16, "name": "MxAztec", "start_year": 1427, "end_year": 1526, "long_name": "Aztec Empire", "new_name": "mx_aztec_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Late Postclassic period, when the Aztecs or Mexica rose to power (c. 1427-1526 CE). The Aztec Empire was born from the \"Triple Alliance\" between the city-states (altepetl) of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan, who agreed to collaborate on campaign of territorial expansion and share the resulting tribute and tax payments. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 449-451) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q</a>. §REF§ Within a century, the three cities came to control a significant portion of Northern Mesoamerica, the main exception being the West, which, despite some military successes on the part of the Triple Alliance early on, largely remained under the control of the Tarascans. §REF§ (Evans 2012: 125) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X</a>. §REF§ <br>As the empire grew, so did the power of Tenochtitlan, which became the de-facto administrative capital, whose ruler came to hold the title huey tlatoani (“high king”). Tenochtitlan's power was strongest over the empire's central provinces, where the Aztecs ruled through governors, judges, tax collectors and other officials that they appointed themselves. For the \"outer\" provinces, the Aztecs limited themselves to targeting major centres, where, again, they appointed their governors and administrative officials. Finally, the Aztecs secured their power over \"frontier\" provinces by guaranteeing military protection from external foes, in exchange for \"gifts\" of soldiers and prestige goods. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 455-457) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q</a>. §REF§ <br>By the time of Spanish conquest in the 1520s, Tenochtitlan likely housed between 150,000 and 250,000 people, §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§ perhaps even 3,000. §REF§ (De Rioja 2017: 220) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GC3T83JD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GC3T83JD</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 27, "name": "Basin of Mexico", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-99.130000000000", "latitude": "19.430000000000", "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico", "nga_code": "MX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": { "id": 77, "text": "a new_comment_text" }, "private_comment": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }