Soc Vio Freq Rel Grp List
A viewset for viewing and editing Social Violence Against Religious Groups.
GET /api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?ordering=-id&page=3
{ "count": 222, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?ordering=-id&page=4", "previous": "https://seshatdata.com/api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?ordering=-id&page=2", "results": [ { "id": 641, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“The archaeological record of the Archaic period (ca. 8000–2000 BC) is still very fragmentary, and this hinders understanding both of the change from foraging societies to kin-based villages and of the development of early hierarchical polities.” §REF§ (Nichols & Pool 2012, 13) Nichols, Deborah L. and Pool, Christopher A. 2012. ‘Mesoamerican Archaeology: Recent Trends’. In The Oxford handbook of Mesoamerican Archaeology. Edited by Deborah L. Nichols and Christopher A. Pool. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/I2EHZSUW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: I2EHZSUW </b></a> §REF§ “Even greater difficulties are faced when it comes to reconstructing social organization, ceremonialism, and ideology from the archaeological traces of people whose material manifestations of these phenomena, even where preserved, were very limited.” §REF§ (Zeitlin & Zeitlin 2000, 50) Zeitlin Robert N. and Zeitlin Judith Francis. 2000. ‘The Paleoindian and Archaic Cultures of Mesoamerica’. In The Cambridge History of the native People of the Americas. Vol II: Mesoamerica. Part I. Edited by Richard E.W. Adams and Murdo J. MacLeod. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C6KJ9FU9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: C6KJ9FU9 </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 6, "name": "MxArch*", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -2001, "long_name": "Archaic Basin of Mexico", "new_name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Archaic or Pre-Ceramic period (c. 6000-2001 BCE). This period may be described as a long, gradual transition from a lifestyle centred on big-game hunting prevalent in the preceding \"Paleo-Indian\" period to a sedentary, agricultural lifestyle in the succeeding \"Formative\" period. Indeed, Archaic sites are defined by their lack of both large animal remains and ceramics. §REF§ (Kennett 2012: 141) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RTF3FP57\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RTF3FP57</a>. §REF§ No population estimates could be found in the consulted literature. Similarly, no information could be found on the political organisation of settlements at the time.<br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 27, "name": "Basin of Mexico", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-99.130000000000", "latitude": "19.430000000000", "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico", "nga_code": "MX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 640, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“The Late Archaic and initial Formative of the central highlands of Mexico are still poorly understood. Niederberger (1976, 1979) found evidence for year-round exploitation of the lake environment at Tlapacoya-Zohapilco around 2500-2000 B.C., suggestive of early sedentism tied to abundant natural resources. There is not, however, evidence for large Late Archaic populations, sedentary or otherwise, and indeed, the Formative is likewise poorly known before approximately 1400 B.C. The Nevada phase in the basin is identified primarily from Zohapilco. The best record of pre-1400 B.C settlement comes from lower-lying areas of Morelos and Puebla (Aviles 1997; Cyphers Guillen and Grove 1987; Grove 1974; Hirth 1987). It is only with Manantial and related phases beginning circa 1150 B.C. (2950 B.P. in radiocarbon years) that occupation is documented across much of central Mexico (e.g., Aufdermauer 1973; Niederberger 1987; Ramirez et al. 2000; Tolstoy 1989).” §REF§ (Lesure et al. 2006, 475-476) Lesure et al. 2006. ‘Chronology, Subsistence, and the Earliest Formative of Central Tlaxcala, Mexico’. Latin American Antiquity. Vol. 17:4. Pp. 474-492. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XMXH6V7V\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XMXH6V7V </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 7, "name": "MxInitl", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1201, "long_name": "Initial Formative Basin of Mexico", "new_name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Initial Formative period (c. 2000-1201 BCE). At the start of this period, maize, squash, and other food crops had been domesticated; however, the earliest known pottery and the earliest known settled villages in the region date to a few centuries later, between 1600 and 1400 BCE. §REF§ (Pool 2012: 171) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6</a>. §REF§ <br>No population estimates could be found in the consulted literature; however, knowing that the site of Tlatilco (which was rather large for its time, and which was settled toward the end of this period) covered about 65 hectares (i.e. 160 acres), §REF§ (Coe 1994: 46) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5DJ2S5IF\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5DJ2S5IF</a>. §REF§ we may estimate that it had a population of between 3,000 and 13,000 people, assuming between 50 and 200 per hectare. No information could be found on the political organisation of settlements at the time, though it is worth noting that, beginning in 1500 BCE, the Basin developed a two-tiered settlement system, §REF§ (Evans 2004: 124) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA</a>. §REF§ suggesting perhaps a hierarchical relationship between larger settlements and smaller ones. Moreover, the ability of certain segments of the population to intensify and control access to staples and ceremonial foods likely led to the earliest emergence of social inequalities and political hierarchies. §REF§ (Pool 2012: 171) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 27, "name": "Basin of Mexico", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-99.130000000000", "latitude": "19.430000000000", "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico", "nga_code": "MX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 639, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion is recognised as being polytheistic, accommodating a broad range of local gods into an increasingly structured framework. Sources speculate that this allowed for a degree of syncretism and tolerance. “Mesopotamian religion was primarily local in its character. Only through institutional efforts (such as the foundation of palaces and temples) and theological systematization did religion gain regional and supra-regional features. Notwithstanding the local character of religion in Mesopotamia, archaeological and textual evidence attests to a religious system that was intended to foster cultural cohesion.” §REF§ (Pongratz-Leisten, 2013, 33). Pongratz-Leisten, B. (2013). Mesopotamia. In B. Spaeth (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions (Cambridge Companions to Religion, pp. 33-54). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZEG8QMQQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZEG8QMQQ </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 346, "name": "IqNeoBb", "start_year": -626, "end_year": -539, "long_name": "Neo-Babylonian Empire", "new_name": "iq_neo_babylonian_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Babylon was re-populated by the Chaldean people and the rulers reclaimed the title of King of Babylon. While his father Nabopolassar was on the throne, Nebachudrezzar went on campaigns to defeat the Assyrian and Egyptian armies. §REF§ Oates, J. 1986. Babylon. London: Thames & Hudson. p.128-130 §REF§ Having succeeded in creating the Neo-Babylonian empire, he returned to Babylon to be crowned. Nebachudrezzar then undertook a period of building creating some of the most iconic Babylonian architecture. He ruled the Neo-Babylonian empire by enforcing tithes of goods and labour, although some of the most distant Levantine city-states had a deal of autonomy. §REF§ Vanderhooft, D.S. 1999. The Neo-Babylonian Empire and Babylon in the Latter Prophets. Harvard Semitic Museum Monographs 59. p.46 §REF§ So the empire continued for several decades until the reign of Nabonidus, whom is presumed to be unpopular. He left Babylon for ten years to live in the desert. Cyrus of the Achaemenid empire subsequently took over Babylon. Some say he was welcomed to depose Nabonidus, other evidence suggests he destroyed the city. §REF§ Oates, J. 1986. Babylon. London: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ <br>At the height of it's power in the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Babylon was given resources to become the centre of the known world for culture, learning and religion.<br>The audience of Babylonian documents appears to be the Babylonian nobles and priesthood, therefore, they mostly celebrate building projects. It is thought that the empire had reached it's natural limit within ten years; with the Medians to the north and east, the Egyptians in the south-west and the desert to the south. Therefore, the threatening military literature that pervaded the Neo-Assyrian empire was not needed in the Neo-Babylonian empire. §REF§ Liverani, M. 2011. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. p.541 §REF§ As a result, less is known about the military capabilities of the Neo-Babylonian empire.<br>The major historical events do not appear to have significantly impacted the material culture. There is continuity in form and style through the Achaemenian transition. §REF§ Baker, H. D. 2012. The Neo-Babylonian Empire. In Potts, D. T. (ed.) A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. Volume II. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. p.915 §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 8, "name": "Southern Mesopotamia", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "44.420000000000", "latitude": "32.470000000000", "capital_city": "Babylon (Hillah)", "nga_code": "IQ", "fao_country": "Iraq", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 62, "name": "Mesopotamia", "subregions_list": "Iraq, Kuwait", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 638, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion is recognised as being polytheistic, accommodating a broad range of local gods into an increasingly structured framework. Sources speculate that this allowed for a degree of syncretism and tolerance. As the latter quote demonstrates, like previous rulers, the Kassite Dynasty probably used this polytheistic system to their own advantage. “Mesopotamian religion was primarily local in its character. Only through institutional efforts (such as the foundation of palaces and temples) and theological systematization did religion gain regional and supra-regional features. Notwithstanding the local character of religion in Mesopotamia, archaeological and textual evidence attests to a religious system that was intended to foster cultural cohesion.” §REF§ (Pongratz-Leisten, 2013, 33). Pongratz-Leisten, B. (2013). Mesopotamia. In B. Spaeth (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions (Cambridge Companions to Religion, pp. 33-54). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZEG8QMQQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZEG8QMQQ </b></a> §REF§ “Like the rulers of earlier empires, Kassite kings understood the importance of connecting the traditional cultural traits with new ones, concealing the fact that they had created a new geopolitical order and thus in reality broken with local traditions. Nominally, the Kassite kings ruled in the name of the Babylonian gods, but the gods who protected and guided them remained Kassite ones.” §REF§ (Heinz, 2012, 718). Heinz, Marlies (2012). The Ur III, Old Babylonian, and Kassite Empires. In Potts, D. T. (Ed.), A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, pp.706-721). John Wiley & Sons. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HIN8NS88\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HIN8NS88 </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 342, "name": "IqBabKs", "start_year": -1595, "end_year": -1150, "long_name": "Kassite Babylonia", "new_name": "iq_babylonia_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kassites invaded Babylon from the north-west after the Hittites ended the First Empire. The Hittites did not establish their presence in Babylonia and, instead, the Kassites took the throne and ruled over Babylonia, although it was a smaller empire than the First Empire. §REF§ Gill, A. 2008. Gateway of the Gods: The Rise and Fall of Babylon. London: Quercus. p.66 §REF§ The Kassite Dynasty is notable for the unification of Sumer and Babylon to create the Empire. It was marked by large building projects, especially in old Sumerian cities such as Ur, Uruk and Eridu. §REF§ Stein, D. L. 1997. Kassites. In Meyers, E. (ed.) The Oxford Encylopedia of Archaeology in the Near East. Volume 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.272 §REF§ The Babylonian Empire was at this time secondary to the powerful surrounding states Egypt and Assyria. The Kassites had a reasonably good relationship with Egypt; there were several intermarriages and gifts were given and recieved. On the other side, they constantly fought with Assyria until the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I captured the Babylonian king, Kashtiliash IV and conquered Babylon. Assyrians ruled Babylon for seven years. Elam also started invading Babylonian territory in the latter Kassite Dynasty, eventually setting Kutir-Nahhunte on the throne in the north, leaving the Kassites surviving in power in the south. Not many years later Kuti-Nahhunte conquered the whole of Babylon, ended the rule of the Kassite Dynasty and took their god, Marduk, to Susa. §REF§ Liverani, M. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. p.364-366 §REF§ <br>The period was characterised by the overall population decline occurring across the Near East. Border towns and villages were abandoned and irrigation became less successful. Much of the administration was undertaken by or in the temples who effectively owned most of the land; however, another type of land ownership developed, which was the land gifted by the king to religious, military and administrative elites. The non-elites, on the other hand, suffered during this period, becoming markedly impoverished as they became unimportant in social government. §REF§ Liverani, M. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. p.366-7 §REF§ <br>In general, the Kassites made only limited changes to Babylonian culture, mostly assimilating into Babylonian society. As such, it can often be difficult to ascribe evidence to the Kassites specifically, as opposed to the ongoing Babylonian empire. §REF§ Gill, A. 2008. Gateway of the Gods: The Rise and Fall of Babylon. London: Quercus. p.68 §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 8, "name": "Southern Mesopotamia", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "44.420000000000", "latitude": "32.470000000000", "capital_city": "Babylon (Hillah)", "nga_code": "IQ", "fao_country": "Iraq", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 62, "name": "Mesopotamia", "subregions_list": "Iraq, Kuwait", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 637, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion is recognised as being polytheistic, accommodating a broad range of local gods into an increasingly structured framework. Sources speculate that this allowed for a degree of syncretism and tolerance. “Mesopotamian religion was primarily local in its character. Only through institutional efforts (such as the foundation of palaces and temples) and theological systematization did religion gain regional and supra-regional features. Notwithstanding the local character of religion in Mesopotamia, archaeological and textual evidence attests to a religious system that was intended to foster cultural cohesion.” §REF§ (Pongratz-Leisten, 2013, 33). Pongratz-Leisten, B. (2013). Mesopotamia. In B. Spaeth (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions (Cambridge Companions to Religion, pp. 33-54). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZEG8QMQQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZEG8QMQQ </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 479, "name": "IqBabAm", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1600, "long_name": "Amorite Babylonia", "new_name": "iq_babylonia_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Amorites were a tribal group from the Levant area of Semitic descent. They migrated towards Mesopotamia and Amorite names can be seen in Mesopotamian literature throughout the 3rd millennium BCE. By the 2nd millennium BCE a number of Amorites had managed to gain control of Mesopotamian city-states in the power vacuum created by the collapse of the Ur III period. §REF§ Goddeeris, A. 2002. Economy and Society in Northern Babylonia in the Early Old Babylonian Period (ca.2000-1800 BC). Leuven: Peeters Publishers. p.8 §REF§ Very early descriptions suggest they were nomadic, eating raw meat and \"careless even of burying their dead\", but at least part of the population settled into a sedentary lifestyle and took up the western Semetic language of Akkadian. The city and kingdom of Mari was an Amorite establishment. §REF§ Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.55 §REF§ <br>One problem encountered when considering the Amorites as a polity is that they are frequently identified by their Amorite name, but it cannot be certain whether this corresponds to an individual who is actually an Amorite or if Amorite names are in general use. For example, the Isin-Larsa period is considered a separate polity from the Old Babylonian, Amorite Dynasty, yet the kings of both cities used Amorite names and titles. §REF§ Goddeeris, A. 2002. Economy and Society in Northern Babylonia in the Early Old Babylonian Period (ca.2000-1800 BC). Leuven: Peeters Publishers. p.8-9 §REF§ <br>The Babylonian king Sumu-la-el started to assert control over other towns in northern Babylonia and in the first few centuries of the 2nd Millennium Babylon became one of several city-states with a limited and fluctuating control over surrounding areas. This was the situation when Hammurabi came to the throne in 1792. By the end of his reign, he had conquered the whole of Babylon and briefly Assyria. He titled himself \"King of the Four Quarters of the World\" and \"King of Sumer and Akkad\" §REF§ Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.65-66 §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 8, "name": "Southern Mesopotamia", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "44.420000000000", "latitude": "32.470000000000", "capital_city": "Babylon (Hillah)", "nga_code": "IQ", "fao_country": "Iraq", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 62, "name": "Mesopotamia", "subregions_list": "Iraq, Kuwait", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 636, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion is recognised as being polytheistic, accommodating a broad range of local gods into an increasingly structured framework. Sources speculate that this allowed for a degree of syncretism and tolerance. “Mesopotamian religion was primarily local in its character. Only through institutional efforts (such as the foundation of palaces and temples) and theological systematization did religion gain regional and supra-regional features. Notwithstanding the local character of religion in Mesopotamia, archaeological and textual evidence attests to a religious system that was intended to foster cultural cohesion.” §REF§ (Pongratz-Leisten, 2013, 33). Pongratz-Leisten, B. (2013). Mesopotamia. In B. Spaeth (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions (Cambridge Companions to Religion, pp. 33-54). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZEG8QMQQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZEG8QMQQ </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 478, "name": "IqIsinL", "start_year": -2004, "end_year": -1763, "long_name": "Isin-Larsa", "new_name": "iq_isin_larsa", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "There were four main settlement types during the Old Babylonian period: large cities, secondary provincial cities, smaller towns, and villages. §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 186) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. <i>The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy</i>. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani</a>. §REF§ §REF§ Ur 2013, 143-144 §REF§ <br>While the temples still held great importance as in previous polities, the state administration of the entire state was under control of the king. However, over the course of this period imperial control over surrounding regions began to break down, increasing the number of small autonomous states who began competing with each other for other cities. §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 187) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. <i>The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy</i>. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 8, "name": "Southern Mesopotamia", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "44.420000000000", "latitude": "32.470000000000", "capital_city": "Babylon (Hillah)", "nga_code": "IQ", "fao_country": "Iraq", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 62, "name": "Mesopotamia", "subregions_list": "Iraq, Kuwait", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 635, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion is recognised as being polytheistic, accommodating a broad range of local gods into an increasingly structured framework. Sources speculate that this allowed for a degree of syncretism and tolerance. “Mesopotamian religion was primarily local in its character. Only through institutional efforts (such as the foundation of palaces and temples) and theological systematization did religion gain regional and supra-regional features. Notwithstanding the local character of religion in Mesopotamia, archaeological and textual evidence attests to a religious system that was intended to foster cultural cohesion.” §REF§ (Pongratz-Leisten, 2013, 33). Pongratz-Leisten, B. (2013). Mesopotamia. In B. Spaeth (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions (Cambridge Companions to Religion, pp. 33-54). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZEG8QMQQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZEG8QMQQ </b></a> §REF§ “Even when subordinated to an alien ruler, the Sumerian city-state remained the domain of its city-god and the appointed “énsi” [ruler] was such because of that god’s will and choice.”§REF§ (Marchesi & Marchetti, 2011, 112). Gianni Marchesi, Nicolò Marchetti (2011). Royal Statuary of Early Dynastic Mesopotamia. Eisenbrauns. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HU6778CR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HU6778CR </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 475, "name": "IqEDyn*", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2500, "long_name": "Early Dynastic", "new_name": "iq_early_dynastic", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Early Dynastic polity was not a single political unit, but rather a conglomeration of various smaller polities which shared most of the features, either cultural, social, political or economic. To cite Hamblin: \"Politically Sumer in the Early Dynastic period was divided into a number of separate and feuding independent city-states engaged in complex pattern of cooperation, alliance, conflict and war. §REF§ Hamblin 2006, 44 §REF§ Most of the cities were ruled by the kings-priests (called lugal or en) which competed with other city-states. The Early Dynastic Period is directly linked to previous polities, especially Jemdet Nasr and most of the urban centres were still occupied and developed. According to Chavrat: \"For the earlier part of the ED period, three types of architectural layout stand out: spacious residences in enclosures (sometimes oval such as those observed on the west mound of Abu Salabikh and elsewhere); regular buildings on ordered plans, comprising most of those currently described as ‘temples’ and ‘palaces’; and, finally, densely packed urban networks such as those of the Abu Salabikh Central Mound or of the ‘Y’ sounding at Kiš.\" §REF§ Chavrat 2012, 235 §REF§ The position of temples were very high, and fulfilled not only religious or ceremonial role, but also political and administrative. The temples had their own fields and animals and were independent institutions, but also obtained gifts for god or goddess from people. Moreover, many people, mostly farmers were obligated to render some services and work. §REF§ Gadd 1971, 137-138 §REF§ The recent studies, however, indicated on dominant role of temple as social and economic institution in Early Dynastic Period I, but gradually the palaces gained prominent position. There is assumed that military victory of some rulers played significant role in forming high position of palace and secular power. §REF§ Evans 2012, 121 §REF§ §REF§ Cohen 2005, 3-5 §REF§ The Early Dynastic Period is also described as a time when the first very intensive military campaigns and conflicts happened. The increase of warfare activity was probably caused by a need of new agricultural lands and water rights, and it also reflected the process of cumulation of power and growth of political significance of some individuals. §REF§ McIntosh 2005, 71 §REF§ The main source of information concerning the political history of Sumer in the Early Dynastic Period is the Sumerian king-list, which contained the names of ling ruling in various Mesopotamian cities. The main problem, however, is to reconstruct both the exact time of each ruling and the synchronize the ruling of each king. The list mentioned few royal dynasty such as the first, second and third dynasty of Kish (with kings Enmebarasi, Agga, etc), the first dynasty of Uruk (one of the most known kings were Gilgamesh, Enmerkar, Lugalbanda), the first dynasty of Ur, dynasty of Adab, dynasty of Mari, dynasty of Hamazi, dynasty of Awan, dynasty of Akshak. There is assumed that the supremacy of Uruk dynasty correlates with duration of Early Dynastic Period II (circa 2650-2550 BCE). §REF§ Hamblin 2006, 44-49 §REF§ <br>\"What is known is that by the third millennium B.C., the Sumerians had improved the shape of the bricks - loaf-shaped at first - by making them flat on one side and convex on the other. More importantly, they also invented the kiln to harden the bricks. Now harder and waterproof, the bricks were also porous, and absorbed some of the bitumen used as mortar and became strong as rock. Esir was then mixed with straw or clay to make it into a stiff mortar capable of sustaining the heavy load of the superimposed brickwork without sagging. Thus were built, until 2200 B.C., the palaces and temples of distant Sumerian kings in such ancient cities as Kish, Ur and Uruk. (Bilkadi, Z. 1984. Bitumen: A History. Saudi Aramco World. November/December. pp 2-9. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198406/bitumen.-.a.history.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198406/bitumen.-.a.history.htm</a>)", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 8, "name": "Southern Mesopotamia", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "44.420000000000", "latitude": "32.470000000000", "capital_city": "Babylon (Hillah)", "nga_code": "IQ", "fao_country": "Iraq", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 62, "name": "Mesopotamia", "subregions_list": "Iraq, Kuwait", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 634, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion is recognised as being polytheistic, accommodating a broad range of local gods into an increasingly structured framework. Sources speculate that this allowed for a degree of syncretism and tolerance. As the latter quotes indicate, during the Ur Dynasty this attitude became part of a more aggressive centralisation of power. “Mesopotamian religion was primarily local in its character. Only through institutional efforts (such as the foundation of palaces and temples) and theological systematization did religion gain regional and supra-regional features. Notwithstanding the local character of religion in Mesopotamia, archaeological and textual evidence attests to a religious system that was intended to foster cultural cohesion.” §REF§ (Pongratz-Leisten, 2013, 33). Pongratz-Leisten, B. (2013). Mesopotamia. In B. Spaeth (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions (Cambridge Companions to Religion, pp. 33-54). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZEG8QMQQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZEG8QMQQ </b></a> §REF§ “The new ruler [Ur-Nammu] projected a view of himself as a religious man, upholding and respecting the old traditions and, at the same time, leaving nobody in doubt that his power and the new order were absolute, without alternative. The new and the old stood side by side, but the new did not threaten the old. Ur-Nammu insured this through his clever placement of new cultic monuments and by according due respect to the gods of each local tradition. Even where local gods were worshipped in new temples, the effort put into building them demonstrated Ur-Nammu’s high regard for them. The imperial building program thus contained two messages: the new was both powerful and obviously accepted by the local gods. At the same time, it served as an invitation to local populations to identify with it, as well as an admonition to be aware that there was no alternative.” §REF§ (Heinz, 2012, 708-9). Heinz, Marlies (2012). The Ur III, Old Babylonian, and Kassite Empires. In Potts, D. T. (Ed.), A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, pp.706-721). John Wiley & Sons. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HIN8NS88\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HIN8NS88 </b></a> §REF§ “With the rise of Ur, cities lost their traditional autonomy […] The deified kings of Ur consequently replaced the city-gods as ultimate heads of the land […] The substitution of local rulers with functionaries appointed by Ur could not have been welcomed without opposition and conflict. Nevertheless, apart from the victory of Ur over the ensi of Lagash, there are no indications of difficulties in the evidence, which tends to describe the situation a posteriori. The kings of Ur actually preferred to avoid mentioning the battles taking place against the Sumerian city-states. They simply celebrated their role as champions of a united and peaceful Mesopotamia.” §REF§ (Liverani, 2013, 157). Liverani, Mario. The Ancient near East : History, Society and Economy, Taylor & Francis Group, 2013. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7DRZQS5Q\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7DRZQS5Q </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 477, "name": "IqUrIII", "start_year": -2112, "end_year": -2004, "long_name": "Ur - Dynasty III", "new_name": "iq_ur_dyn_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The founder of the Third Dynasty of Ur was Ur-Nammu who probably came from Uruk, however he was a military commander (<i>šagina</i>) of Ur, and later its independent ruler who conducted victorious fights with the Gutians and took by force other lands of Sumer and consolidated the whole Akkad and Sumer. Moreover, he also conquered Elam and even reached Susa. His political power was related not only to his conquest, but mainly to his cultural and legislative activities. He was a builder of few great temples and was a lawgiver of one of the oldest 'code' called <i>Code of Ur-Nammu</i>. §REF§ Stępień 2009, 11-12 §REF§ His son - Shulgi continued father's politics and he \"reorganized system and territorial administrative structure, but also much enlarged its lands and increased international prestige, turning it into a dominant power of the region.\" §REF§ Stępień 2009, 16 §REF§ He seized among other Simurrum, Lullubum, Kimaš, Hurti, Karahar, Šašrum, Harši. He used the political marriages and various alliances as well to cement his state (e. g. his daughters married the ruler of Marhaši and the ensi of Anshan). Two sons of Shulgi reigned 9 years each - Amar-Sin(Amar-Suen)and Shu-Sin(Su-Suen). Amar-Suen led few victorious campaigns against Urbilum, Šašrum and Hurrians. Su-Suen fight against Amorites, however his strategy was more defensive than offensive. The last king from this dynasty -Ibbi-Sin was less successful in fights with Amorites, Gutians and Elamites. After he was betrayed by the governor of Isin named Ishbi- Irra, the Ur became much weaker. Eventually the city of Ur was captured and looted in 2010 and Ibbi-Sin lost his throne and was transported to Susa. Generally speaking, the Ur III period is perceived as a flowering time when many significant changes took place, especially on the field of literature, culture and architecture. However, many important transformation concerning administration, army as well as the position of the ruler were happened. Ur is described often in the literature as \"the centralized bureaucratic state\" §REF§ Ur 2014, 256 §REF§ with many civil servants and elaborated administration structures. According to Jason Ur: \"The kings of Ur created centralized temple and above all royal administrative systems, and attempted to resuscitate a Sumerian identity. §REF§ Ur 2013, 143 §REF§ The state of Ur consisted of three main zones: core, periphery and vassal territories. The core encompasses lands of Sumer and Akkad and it includes 18 provinces. The peripheral areas are defined as the land which were attached by Shulgi (in a consequence of his military activity) such as eastern Iraq, the western provinces of Kurdistan, Luristan, Khuzestan. The third zone, so called \"sphere of influence\" included vassal states. §REF§ Stępień 2009, 55-60 §REF§ Besides its military achievements, the marital alliances were often used tool to establish or broaden the power of Ur's kings.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 8, "name": "Southern Mesopotamia", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "44.420000000000", "latitude": "32.470000000000", "capital_city": "Babylon (Hillah)", "nga_code": "IQ", "fao_country": "Iraq", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 62, "name": "Mesopotamia", "subregions_list": "Iraq, Kuwait", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 633, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion is recognised as being polytheistic, accommodating a broad range of local gods into an increasingly structured framework. Sources speculate that this allowed for a degree of syncretism and tolerance. “Mesopotamian religion was primarily local in its character. Only through institutional efforts (such as the foundation of palaces and temples) and theological systematization did religion gain regional and supra-regional features. Notwithstanding the local character of religion in Mesopotamia, archaeological and textual evidence attests to a religious system that was intended to foster cultural cohesion.” §REF§ (Pongratz-Leisten, 2013, 33). Pongratz-Leisten, B. (2013). Mesopotamia. In B. Spaeth (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions (Cambridge Companions to Religion, pp. 33-54). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZEG8QMQQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZEG8QMQQ </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 481, "name": "IqBazi*", "start_year": -1005, "end_year": -986, "long_name": "Bazi Dynasty", "new_name": "iq_bazi_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "This period begins with the ascension of the founder of the Bazi dynasty, Eulmash-shakin-shumi in 1005 BCE after a turbulent period of famine and invasions. §REF§ (Brinkman, 297) Brinkman, J.A. 1982. “Babylonia.” In <i>The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 3, Part 1: The Prehistory of the Balkans, the Middle East and the Aegean World, Tenth to Eighth Centuries B.C.</i>, edited by John Boardman, I.E.S. Edwards, N.G.L. Hammond, and E. Sollberger, 282-312. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWUWJEQ3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWUWJEQ3</a>. §REF§ <br>There were four main settlement types during this period: the capital city of Babylon, secondary provincial cities, smaller towns, and villages. Although the capital city was Babylon, it was the city of Kar-Marduk where the king resided, potentially as this was located in a less vulnerable area. §REF§ Liverani, M. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. p.364-370 §REF§ <br><br/>Although all settlements were joined under the king, political and economic crisis led to all major cities running their own affairs and so they held some level of autonomy. Temples acted as the centres of resources, policy and activity in each area and the sanga / shangum (chief priest) was an administrative as well as religious role. §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 471) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. <i>The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy</i>. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (McIntosh 2005: 206) McIntosh, J. 2005. <i>Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective</i>. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD</a>. §REF§ <br>Written records, scripts, poems, religious texts and ‘scientific’ literature increased during this period.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 8, "name": "Southern Mesopotamia", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "44.420000000000", "latitude": "32.470000000000", "capital_city": "Babylon (Hillah)", "nga_code": "IQ", "fao_country": "Iraq", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 62, "name": "Mesopotamia", "subregions_list": "Iraq, Kuwait", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 632, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion is recognised as being polytheistic, accommodating a broad range of local gods into an increasingly structured framework. Sources speculate that this allowed for a degree of syncretism and tolerance. However, as the latter quote demonstrates, the removal of city god statues continued to be integral to battles for regional power in this period. Sources acknowledge that Assyrian Kings were careful not to portray the Babylonian god Marduk as captive god. “Mesopotamian religion was primarily local in its character. Only through institutional efforts (such as the foundation of palaces and temples) and theological systematization did religion gain regional and supra-regional features. Notwithstanding the local character of religion in Mesopotamia, archaeological and textual evidence attests to a religious system that was intended to foster cultural cohesion.” §REF§ (Pongratz-Leisten, 2013, 33). Pongratz-Leisten, B. (2013). Mesopotamia. In B. Spaeth (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions (Cambridge Companions to Religion, pp. 33-54). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZEG8QMQQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZEG8QMQQ </b></a> §REF§ “The Assyrian king [Šamši-Adad V, reigned 823–811] captured no fewer than eleven deities from Der, including two manifestations of Mar-biti, leaving the city without the support of its patron gods.” §REF§ (Dalley, 2021, 180) Dalley, Stephanie. (2021) The City of Babylon: A History, c. 2000 BC – AD 116, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U4HSRAKT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: U4HSRAKT </b></a>§REF§ “During the Assyrian king’s control over Babylon [Adad-nirari, reigned 810–783], Marduk was invoked in Assyria alongside Assyrian gods, not as a captive god stripped of power, but as an equal of the great Assyrian deities.” §REF§ (Dalley, 2021, 182) Dalley, Stephanie. (2021) The City of Babylon: A History, c. 2000 BC – AD 116, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U4HSRAKT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: U4HSRAKT </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 482, "name": "IqDynE*", "start_year": -979, "end_year": -732, "long_name": "Dynasty of E", "new_name": "iq_dynasty_e", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "There were four main settlement types during this period: the capital city of Babylon, secondary provincial cities, smaller towns, and villages. §REF§ Liverani, M. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. p.364-370 §REF§ Although the capital city was Babylon, it was the city of Kar-Marduk where the king resided, potentially as this was located in a less vulnerable area. §REF§ Liverani, M. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. p.364-370 §REF§ <br>Although all settlements were joined under the king, political and economic crisis led to all major cities running their own affairs and so they held some level of autonomy. Temples acted as the centres of resources, policy and activity in each area and the sanga / shangum (chief priest) was an administrative as well as religious role. §REF§ (McIntosh 2005: 206) McIntosh, J. 2005. <i>Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective</i>. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 471) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. <i>The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy</i>. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani</a>. §REF§ <br>Goods were transported by water and traded through exchange, with the main commodities being silver and grains. §REF§ (McIntosh 2005: 132) McIntosh, J. 2005. <i>Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective</i>. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD</a>. §REF§ <br>Written records, scripts, poems, religious texts and ‘scientific’ literature increased during this period. §REF§ (McIntosh 2005: 291) McIntosh, J. 2005. <i>Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective</i>. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 8, "name": "Southern Mesopotamia", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "44.420000000000", "latitude": "32.470000000000", "capital_city": "Babylon (Hillah)", "nga_code": "IQ", "fao_country": "Iraq", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 62, "name": "Mesopotamia", "subregions_list": "Iraq, Kuwait", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }