Soc Vio Freq Rel Grp List
A viewset for viewing and editing Social Violence Against Religious Groups.
GET /api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?ordering=-id&page=2
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Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HS7WMJ82\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HS7WMJ82 </b></a>§REF§“So in fact Jews and Christians could fraternise at all social levels, over independent commerce, moneylending, second-hand dealing; over Jewish Medical expertise, and language scholarship; over medicinal and love-magic techniques, and sex. Some of these common interests could concern the Inquisitors.” §REF§ (Black, 142) Black, Christopher. 2009. The Italian Inquisition. New Haven: Yale University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SUH4PNB5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SUH4PNB5 </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 192, "name": "ItPapM1", "start_year": 1527, "end_year": 1648, "long_name": "Papal States - Medieval Period I", "new_name": "it_papal_state_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The polity period begins with the imperial sack of Rome (1527). This devastating sack at the hands of largely Protestant mercenaries-theoretically in the service of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V-marks an absolute nadir of papal fortunes for the early modern period. The sack provoked the papacy to reform itself, take the Protestant revolt seriously, and initiate the Counter-Reformation (aka the Catholic Reformation). §REF§ (Martin 2002, 39-42) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ The age of the Council of Trent (1543-1563) dramatically altered the Catholic Church, enhancing the papacy's power within the Church and enhancing its ability to police the laity, with institutions such as the Roman Inquisition being established in 1542 by Paul III. §REF§ (Martin 2002, 42) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ The index of banned books was established, tighter clerical control over canonization imposed, and in general the Catholic Church ratcheted down on orthodoxy in the face of the Protestant threat. §REF§ (Schutte 2002, 126-127) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ <br>The sack of Rome was compounded by malaria epidemics and food shortages, to drastically reduce the population of Rome to perhaps 10,000 in 1527-28. §REF§ (Black 2001, 9) Christopher F Black. 2001. <i>Early modern Italy. A social history.</i> London: Routledge. §REF§ Despite this, the city soon recovered and boomed in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as the capital of a more or less stable Papal State, under Spanish protection. By the turn of the century, Rome's population may have been around 100,000. §REF§ (Goldthwaite 2009, 173) Richard A Goldthwaite. 2009. <i>The economy of renaissance Florence.</i> Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 2009. §REF§ Marino has characterized the early modern city's economy as parasitic, consuming and not producing wealth §REF§ (Marino 2002, 66) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ ; Goldthwaite, similarly, describes late medieval and early modern Rome thus: \"Rome, however, was a city that consumed but did not produce; in contrast to Avignon, it was not a regional export market of any importance.\" §REF§ (Goldthwaite 2009, 173) Richard A Goldthwaite. 2009. <i>The economy of renaissance Florence.</i> Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 2009. §REF§ A major part of this consumption was cultural: \"Rome...exploded [in the sixteenth century] into an enormous market for luxury goods....\" §REF§ (Goldthwaite 2009, 173) Richard A Goldthwaite. 2009. <i>The economy of renaissance Florence.</i> Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 2009. §REF§ Despite the sack, the most important papal building project of the early modern period, St. Peter's Basilica, was completed in 1626. Spanish financial and military support was crucial to the survival of the Papal State; a famous letter of Charles V, written to his son Philip II between 1545 and 1558, declared that \"'the states of the church are in the center of Italy, but [they are] surrounded by ours in such a way that one can say that they form one kingdom.'\" §REF§ (Dandelet 2003, 221) Thomas Dandelet. 2003. \"The Spanish Foundations of Late Renaissance and Baroque Rome.\" In <i>Beyond Florence. The Contours of Medieval and Early Modern Italy.</i>Paula Findlen, Michelle M. Fontaine, and Duane J. Osheim eds. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP. pp. 219-232 §REF§ <i>De facto</i> Spanish hegemony over the Papal State would not be seriously challenged between the mid-16th century and the pontificate of Urban VIII (1623-44). §REF§ (Dandelet 2003, 221) Thomas Dandelet. 2003. \"The Spanish Foundations of Late Renaissance and Baroque Rome.\" In <i>Beyond Florence. The Contours of Medieval and Early Modern Italy.</i>Paula Findlen, Michelle M. Fontaine, and Duane J. Osheim eds. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP. pp. 219-232 §REF§ <br>By the sixteenth century, the papacy was firmly in control of the Papal State, and the polity was at peace after the end of the Great Italian Wars (1559). The Spanish alliance remained a cornerstone of papal policy into the early 18th century. §REF§ (Dandelet 2002, 29) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ The papacy ruled Rome and the State through a sophisticated bureaucracy based on patronage, cronyism, and the purchase of offices. §REF§ (Dandelet 2002, 20) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 696-698) Fernand Braudel. 1973. <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.</i> Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ The feudal barons and nobles were subject to clerical officials appointed by the Papacy. §REF§ (Symcox 2002, 114) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ Although this bureaucracy was usually able to meet the basic requirements of government-collecting taxes, administering justice, and protecting subjects-this does not mean that the Papal State was free of violence, famine, and so forth. Banditry remained a major problem during the period and would straight through to the late nineteenth century. §REF§ (Symcox 2002, 110) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 745-746) Fernand Braudel. 1973. <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.</i> Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ <br>After the end of the Wars, military action involving the papacy shifted to the Mediterranean. The Ottomans had begun raiding papal possessions on the Adriatic littoral from the mid-15th century, following the fall of Constantinople. These raids were not preludes to conquest, but were a serious disruption to trade and daily life in <i>le Marche</i>; in 1518, Selim I's forces had torched Porto Recanati, the port for Loreto, site of a major shrine to the Virgin. This imminent threat, compounded with the papacy's traditional role as organizer and propagandist of the crusade, resulted in deep papal involvement in the struggle against the Ottomans. Initially, these efforts were not successful. The major Turkish victory at Prevesa (1538) opened the Central Mediterranean to Turkish raiding and piracy; the Ottomans' alliance with the French even allowed the Turkish fleet to winter in Toulon. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 906) Fernand Braudel. 1973. <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.</i> Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ This ability of the Turks to winter in the western Mediterranean exposed the coast of Lazio to Turkish piracy; for example, Andrea Doria, leading a mixed papal-Genoese fleet, was defeated by Turks and North Africans off Terracina in 1552. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 924) Fernand Braudel. 1973. <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.</i> Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ <br>Confronted with this Turkish menace, the papacy was crucial in organizing Christian campaigns against the Turks in North Africa and Greece, and in funding coastal defences for Lazio and the Kingdoms of Sicily & Naples. Pius V (1566-1572) was of particular importance in this effort, laying the groundwork for a papal fleet. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 1083) Fernand Braudel. 1973. <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.</i> Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ Pius granted major sources of ecclesiastical revenue to the Spanish Philip II, and was instrumental in organizing the councils and diplomatic wrangling that led to the creation of the Holy League in 1570, in particular convincing the Spanish to come to the aid of the Ventians. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 1029) Fernand Braudel. 1973. <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.</i> Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ The Holy League consisted of the Papacy, Spain, and Venice; by the final agreement, each party agreed to contributions for 3 years, for an annual expedition consisting of 200 galleys, 100 roundships, 50,000 infantry and 4,500 light infantry. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 1091) Fernand Braudel. 1973. <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.</i> Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ The Christian fleet met and decisively defeated a comparable Turkish squadron at Lepanto, off the Greek Ionian littoral, on 7 October 1571. It was the greatest battle in the Mediterranean in the 16th century, and it marked a substantive end to Turkish raiding on the papal lands and, more importantly, led to the division of the Mediterranean into a Turkish east and a Christian west. The papacy's international prestige rose to new heights with the victory, as well, but declined during the seventeenth century due to the grasping annexation of the duchy of Urbino and Urban VIII's foolish war of Castro in the early 1640s. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 9-10) Dominc Sella. 1997. <i>Italy in the Seventeeth Century.</i> London & New York: Longman. §REF§ <br>Italy enjoyed several decades of peace following the peace of Cateau-Cambresis of 1559 between France and Spain. Yet economically and demographically, the 1590s and the first half of the seventeenth century were a period of general crisis in Italy. The \"decline of Italy\" is a venerable aspect of early modern historiography, but depends on a particular view of what counts in assessing quality of life: see Black, (2001, 32), for an approving echo of Braudel's comments to the contrary §REF§ (Black 2001, 32) Christopher F Black. 2001. <i>Early modern Italy. A social history.</i> London: Routledge. §REF§ Papal revenues were aided by the popes' ability to draw on Spanish ecclesiastical revenues. §REF§ (Dandelet 2003, 219-232) Thomas Dandelet. 2003. \"The Spanish Foundations of Late Renaissance and Baroque Rome.\" In <i>Beyond Florence. The Contours of Medieval and Early Modern Italy.</i>Paula Findlen, Michelle M. Fontaine, and Duane J. Osheim eds. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP. pp. 219-232 §REF§ Demographically, the first half of the seventeenth century was a succession of plagues and famines in many parts of the peninsula. §REF§ (Black 2001, 23) Christopher F Black. 2001. <i>Early modern Italy. A social history.</i> London: Routledge. §REF§ A particularly virulent plague cycle hit Rome in 1656, §REF§ (Cipolla 1981, 90) Carlo M Cipolla. 1981. <i>Fighting the plague in Seventeenth-century Italy.</i> Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. §REF§ dropping its population from 120,000 to 100,000. §REF§ (Black 2001, 23) Christopher F Black. 2001. <i>Early modern Italy. A social history.</i> London: Routledge. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-05-07T08:35:48.112337Z", "home_nga": { "id": 1, "name": "Latium", "subregion": "Southern Europe", "longitude": "12.486948000000", "latitude": "41.890407000000", "capital_city": "Rome", "nga_code": "IT", "fao_country": "Italy", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 38, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 650, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Inferred from societal attitudes towards Judaism. “At their worst the Latin writers display toward the Jews a good-natured contempt often mixed with curiousity. At their best some writers show a positive inclination if not preference for Jewish rites. […] Judaism appears to have enjoyed a much wider vogue among eclectics in Rome than in Alexandria, or in Antioch, because in its non-national form it was much less unpalatable to the gentile population. As a result the bloody riots of the Eastern cities between Jews and non-Jews were not re-enacted in Rome.” §REF§ (Guterman 1971, 95) Guterman, Simeon. 1971. Religious Toleration and Persecution in ancient Rome. London: Aiglion Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DGNRK6XG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DGNRK6XG </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 184, "name": "ItRomLR", "start_year": -133, "end_year": -31, "long_name": "Late Roman Republic", "new_name": "it_roman_rep_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The last of the Roman kings, the tyrannical Lucius Tarquinius Superbus ('the Arrogant'), was expelled by a revolt of some of the leading Roman aristocrats in 509 BCE. Vowing never again to allow a single person to amass so much authority, the revolutionaries established in place of the monarchy a republican system of governance, featuring a senate composed of aristocratic men and a series of elected political and military officials. The Roman Republic was a remarkably stable and successful polity, lasting from 509 BCE until it was transformed into an imperial state under Augustus in 31 BCE (though the exact date is debated, as this was not a formal transformation). We divide the Republic into an early (509-264 BCE), a middle (264-133 BCE), and a late (133-31 BCE) period.<br>The Late Republican period began once Rome was firmly established as the major power throughout the Mediterranean basin. By the end of the period, Romans had taken control of the entire Mediterranean region, with further territorial expansion into North Africa, Anatolia, the Levant and Egypt. Success abroad, however, was not matched by stability at home. The Roman state entered a prolonged period of crisis during the 1st century BCE. Civil wars were frequent, pitting different military leaders such as Sulla, Pompey the Great, and Julius Caesar and their supporters against each other. An underlying tension persisted between the wealthy and elite and the rest of the population. These tensions intensified in 133 BCE, when a Plebeian Tribune (an elected official charged with looking after the interests of the poorer members of society) named Tiberius Gracchus proposed legislation to redistribute land that had been taken over (legally and extra-legally) by wealthy aristocrats to landless Romans, particularly those who had served in the army. This move upset the ruling elite, leading to a riot in the streets of Rome and, ultimately, to Gracchus' death. The city's different political factions were polarized by these events, leading to a series of violent contests for power by military leaders supported either by the elites (notably Sulla and Pompey the Great) or styled as champions of the people (Marius, Caesar, and Octavian/Augustus).<br>The period of civil war, and with it republican government at Rome, effectively ended in 31 BCE when Octavian (soon to take the title of Augustus as the first ruler of the imperial Roman state, known as the Principate) defeated Mark Antony and the Egyptian army led by the Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra at the battle of Actium.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Rome during the Republican period possessed no written constitution, but was governed largely through the power and prestige of the Senate, with a clear respect for precedent and for maintaining Rome's traditions. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 31) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican \"Constitution\"', in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</i>, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ A primary goal of the early Republic was to establish clear checks on the power of any single ruler - the military office of chief commander was in fact split between two generals (consuls), while the chief priestly and legislative posts were split among different people (individuals were restricted from holding multiple offices at once) - and popular assemblies voted on new laws.<br>Romans of this period did not distinguish between what is today termed 'secular' and 'sacred' authority; although individual magistracies had distinct functions, the same person often held both religious and political offices over the course of their lifetime, as they were thought to be part of essentially the same sphere of governance. The Republic featured a substantial array of religious offices and institutions intended to determine the will of the gods or to please them through the proper performance of rituals and the maintenance of large public temples. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican \"Constitution\"', in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</i>, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ These public auspices were the basis of magisterial power in the Republic. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican \"Constitution\"', in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</i>, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Auspices were sometimes taken by consuls and other officials, for example before important military engagements, §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican \"Constitution\"', in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</i>, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ but were mainly managed by specialist elected priests and full-time priestesses (such as the Vestal Virgins) and other priestly offices supported by the state. §REF§ (Culham 2004, 131) Phyllis Culham. 2004. 'Women in the Roman Republic, in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</i>, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 139-59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Despite the internal strife, Rome remained essentially unchallenged by external forces and continued to make military advances. The significant reforms of the consul Marius helped modernize the ever-expanding Roman army around 105 BCE by removing property qualifications for military service, paving the way towards a fully professional fighting force. The period also saw some extensive engineering projects that increased urbanization and economic development: roads, aqueducts, bridges, amphitheatres, theatres, public baths, as well as Roman administrative and legal institutions spread alongside the military throughout the Mediterranean. Though this time was a period of political instability, it also was the start of a 'golden age' in the cultural history of Rome, with literary figures like Cicero, Horace, Sallust, Caesar and Catullus, among others, leaving important and influential writings.<br>The population at the dawn of empire was around 30 million people, with Italy itself supporting between 5 and 10 million, thus apparently experiencing population growth despite the repeated bouts of civil war. §REF§ (Scheidel 2008) Walter Scheidel. 2008. 'Roman Population Size: The Logic of the Debate', in <i>People, Land, and Politics: Demographic Developments and the Transformation of Roman Italy, 300 BC-AD 14</i>, edited by L. de Ligt and S. J. Northwood, 17-70. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 1, "name": "Latium", "subregion": "Southern Europe", "longitude": "12.486948000000", "latitude": "41.890407000000", "capital_city": "Rome", "nga_code": "IT", "fao_country": "Italy", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 649, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Recent archaeological and epigraphic work have convincingly demonstrated that, notwithstanding important cultural and religious differences and legal restrictions, Jews formed relationships with their pagan and Christian neighbours to a greater degree than had previously been thought and shared with them many of the same political and social expectations.” §REF§(Cohen 2016, 505) Cohen, Samuel. 2016. ‘Religious Diversity’. In The Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. Edited by Jonathan J. Arnold. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SPK4466C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SPK4466C </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 186, "name": "ItOstrg", "start_year": 489, "end_year": 554, "long_name": "Ostrogothic Kingdom", "new_name": "it_ostrogoth_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Beginning with the Emperor Honorius (r. 393-423 CE), the Western Empire experienced a continuous decline and a series of invasions at the hands of Germanic, Vandal, Alan, and Hun forces throughout the 5th century. In 476 CE, a Roman military officer of likely Germanic decent (though his exact ancestry is not certain) named Odoacer led a revolt against the western emperor Romulus Augustus (r. 475-476 CE), a child whose rule was overseen by his father, a high-ranking general named Orestes. Odoacer and his fellow soldiers killed Orestes and effectively deposed Romulus Augustus, and Odoacer's authority was recognized by the Eastern Roman emperor at the time, Zeno, although he was not proclaimed Emperor in the West. In 480 CE, after the death of Julius Nepos, whom Zeno recognized as the legitimate Western Emperor, Zeno abolished the co-emperorship, claiming to rule over both halves of the Empire, although much of the Western Empire had already been lost and Italy itself remained under the control of Odoacer, who ruled as king. §REF§ (Cameron 1993) Averil Cameron. 1993. <i>The Later Roman Empire, A.D. 284-430</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Burns 1991, 74) Thomas S. Burns. 1991. <i>A History of the Ostrogoths</i>. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. §REF§ <br>In 488 CE, the Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno convinced Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths (r. 475-526), to invade Italy and remove Odoacer from power. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 21) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Theodoric and his Ostrogoths were successful, expelling Odoacer from Italy and establishing an Ostrogothic Kingdom over most of Italy, which lasted from 489 to 554 CE. Theodoric's agreement with Zeno, which may have been written down but no longer exists, §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 20) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ led Theodoric's rule to be officially recognized by the Eastern Empire in Constantinople. §REF§ (Stearns, ed. 2001, 169) Peter N. Stearns, ed. 2001. <i>The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern</i>. 6th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. §REF§ <br>The period ends with Ostrogothic Italy's defeat at the hands of the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I in 455 CE. Justinian managed to reassert Roman rule and institutions over much of Italy, though this quickly evaporated in the face of invasions by Salvic, Turkic, and Germanic tribes. Only central and some parts of southern Italy remained under Byzantine authority into the later half of the 5th century CE. §REF§ (Burns 1991, 215) Thomas S. Burns. 1991. <i>A History of the Ostrogoths</i>. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Ostrogothic Kingdom was essentially split between three separate power centres: Constantinople, Ravenna and Rome. The Ostrogothic king, traditionally elected by a Gothic military elite, §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 21) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ but made hereditary after Theodoric, made high-level administrative appointments to a court based in Ravenna and to the northern Italian cities of Pavia and Verona. §REF§ (Barnish 2007, 327) Sam J. Barnish. 2007.<i> 'Cuncta Italiae Membra Componere</i>: Political Relations in Ostrogothic Italy', in <i>The Ostrogoths from the Migration Period to the Sixth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective</i>, edited by Sam J. Barnish and Federico Marazzi, 317-37. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§ The Ostrogothic King was, however, in principle under the authority of the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire in Constantinople, on whose invitation Theodoric had invaded Odoacer's Italy. The emperors in Constantinople retained the right to name senators, consuls, and other high-ranking officials for the West, §REF§ (Wolfram and Dunlap 1990, 287-88) H. Wolfram and T. J. Dunlap. 1990. <i>History of the Goths</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ while Rome remained an influential symbolic, economic, and ecclesiastical centre. §REF§ (Barnish 2007, 327) Sam J. Barnish. 2007.<i> 'Cuncta Italiae Membra Componere</i>: Political Relations in Ostrogothic Italy', in <i>The Ostrogoths from the Migration Period to the Sixth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective</i>, edited by Sam J. Barnish and Federico Marazzi, 317-37. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§ The Roman Senate at Rome functioned as a local governing centre; §REF§ (Arnold, Bjornlie and Sessa 2016, 8) Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa. 2016. 'Introduction', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 1-13. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ many wealthy Romans found traditional positions of authority and prestige in the administration at Ravenna. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 25) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ §REF§ (Arnold, Bjornlie and Sessa 2016, 8) Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa. 2016. 'Introduction', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 1-13. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Ostrogothic kings kept the existing late Roman governmental structure relatively unchanged, §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 59) Shane M Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration.' in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i> edited by Jonathan J Arnold, Shane M Bjornlie, Kristina Sessa. Leiden: BRILL. §REF§ but reduced in size §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 53) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ and more tightly centred on the royal court. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 26) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>The king's administrative and advisory council was made up of both Gothic and Roman officials. §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 58) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ §REF§ (Barnish 2007, 322) Sam J. Barnish. 2007.<i> 'Cuncta Italiae Membra Componere</i>: Political Relations in Ostrogothic Italy', in <i>The Ostrogoths from the Migration Period to the Sixth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective</i>, edited by Sam J. Barnish and Federico Marazzi, 317-37. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§ This period also saw a 'blurring of the boundaries between civil and military functions'. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 26) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The praetorian prefect was the most powerful individual in the kingdom below the king; he was responsible for enforcing the king's laws, had some power to issue his own edicts and set taxation rates, received the taxes from all provinces, paid military and administrative salaries, made personnel recommendations to the king and had the right of dismissal. §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 61) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ He also commanded the largest branches of the bureaucracy, was responsible for the public food supply, and was the final judge of appeal. §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 61) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>The Ostrogothic Kingdom reached a population of approximately 5.5 million people and witnessed a revival in economic fortunes for the region of Italy. Apart from the many Roman institutions, the Roman aristocracy and their privileges that were maintained, tax receipts were spent on public services §REF§ (Wolfram and Dunlap 1990, 296) H. Wolfram and T. J. Dunlap. 1990. <i>History of the Goths</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ and Theodoric commanded that money be set aside for the restoration of walls and monuments in several Roman cities. §REF§ (Purton 2009, 14) Peter Purton. 2009. <i>A History of the Early Medieval Siege, c. 450-1220</i>. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§ Theodoric also oversaw the construction of baths and an amphitheatre, and restored aqueducts from Ravenna to Rome - the latter had seen its population fall to around 100,000-200,000 inhabitants - and built churches such as the Arian Saint Theodor, the palatial San Apollinare Nuovo, and the San Andrea dei Gothi. §REF§ (Burns 1991, 129) Thomas S. Burns. 1991. <i>A History of the Ostrogoths</i>. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 1, "name": "Latium", "subregion": "Southern Europe", "longitude": "12.486948000000", "latitude": "41.890407000000", "capital_city": "Rome", "nga_code": "IT", "fao_country": "Italy", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 648, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice. [...] Much of the evidence, then, suggests that all the diverse religious sects were freely tolerated by a prevailing world view that was ready to acknowledge a certain common validity. Yet it is unlikely that such a view could rise to the status of cultural orthodoxy without friction. Although references to religious wars and persecutions are conspicuously absent from the historical record of ancient India, this does not rule out lesser types of conflict, and some scholars believe that there is indeed evidence of localised disagreement and resentment. [...] For example, the Arthaśāstra gratuitously advises the agents of a king to help themselves, on behalf of the ruler, to the property of groups on the fringes of society who might not have powerful friends. Moreover, there are hints in scattered sources that the followers of orthodox Brahman teachers at times ganged up against Buddhist or Jain establishments that had lost their former patronage. [...] Still, hard evidence of religious persecution in these ancient times is scattered and fragmentary. In the absence of more solid evidence, the view has gained ground that pre-modern India had a cultural unity that precluded communal conflict, but we think that this picture is not sufficiently nuanced. Doniger’s perception that there was widespread persecution of non-Brahmans during the first millennium may fairly represent the situation that arose at certain times, but we cannot be at all sure how widespread the phenomenon was, or at what times it was most marked.//\"Still, we should note that, simply as a matter of practical politics, there was at least one factor that would certainly have acted to limit the ferocity of any sectarian persecutions – the absence of a clear and powerful advantage at all times for kings in identifying themselves with the Brahman interest. No clear dividing line existed, in fact, between ruling families that were of ‘genuine’ ‘Aryan’ descent, and the rest; the ruling elite presided over heterogeneous populations within which Brahmanism, as an agent of Sanskritisation and as a common cultural denominator, was slowly feeling its way towards a new role, directed towards shaping an inclusive syncretism. Thus, the Brahmanical revival could not afford to go too far. Especially, it had to be very wary of attacking the prudent preference of kings for policies that had the capacity to attract wide support among the multiple disparate groups that constituted the citizenry. The Brahmans had to make do with whatever qualified honour they could find within the frame of an eclectic culture. Such structural constraints are likely to have kept them from striking at their enemies too wantonly.” §REF§ (Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 700, "name": "in_pandya_emp_1", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 300, "long_name": "Early Pandyas", "new_name": "in_pandya_emp_1", "polity_tag": "POL_SA_SI", "general_description": "The Early Pandyas were a southern kingdom in Tamil Nadu and part of the three ruling kingdoms of Early Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas who ruled over Tamilakam in the late last millennium BCE and early first millennium CE. §REF§ (Abraham 2003) Abraham, Shinu A. 2003. ‘Chera, Chola, Pandya: Using Archaeological Evidence to Identify the Tamil Kingdoms of Early Historic South India’. Asian Perspectives 42 (2): 207–23. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MIRRQD2C/ §REF§ The Early Pandyas had their capital at Madurai and their main port at Korkai. §REF§ (Agnihotri 1988, 351) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection</a> §REF§<br> The Early Pandyas were founders and supporters of the great Tamil literary and educational academies called ‘Sangam’ which is where the Sangam Age or Period originates from. §REF§ (Dikshitar 1941, 152-153) Dikshitar, Ranachandra. 1941. ‘The Sangam Age’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 5. Pp 152-161. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FG8Q2SFG/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FG8Q2SFG/collection</a> §REF§ The Early Pandyas were Hindu Shiavists but Jainism and Buddhism were also present within the kingdom. §REF§ (Danielou, 2003) Danielou, Alain. 2003. A Brief History of India. New York: Simon and Schuster. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/WFMTGQJ8/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/WFMTGQJ8/collection</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Agnihotri 1988, 361) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection</a> §REF§<br> By the 3rd century CE, all three ruling Sangam kingdoms become feudatories to the Kalabhra Dynasty.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-07T14:00:03.654946Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 61, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 647, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "VERY_RARELY_COMMENT: “All the Maratha rulers from Ekoji contributed, especially to the celebration of Allah festival, which was and is ever famous in the Tanjore kingdom […] the Allah is taken out in a procession for worshipping into the area of Hindus, and there was no quarrel or ill feeling among the Hindus.” […] “The Islamic people’s peaceful co-existence with Hindus was very much perceptible in the period and they could not maintain their own identity. I was due to the fact that Islam in the Tanjore region was influenced by the native Tamils. For example saint worship is popular in the Tamil region whereas the Tamil Muslims had their faith in their worship of Pirs. Many of the Islamic festivals were identical of the Hindu festivals. Islam, in the region followed and celebrated the festivals like the Kanduri festival in all parts of the Tanjore region. Like the Hindus, the Islamic people took a procession during the Allah festival. It was very popular among the Hindus.” §REF§ (Chinnaiyan 2004, 370, 372, 373) Chinnaiyan, S. 2004 ‘Royal Patronage to Islam in Tanjore Maratha Kingdom [As Gleaned from Modi Records].’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 65. Pp 370-374. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H5PRQ47A\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: H5PRQ47A </b></a> §REF§ <br> MORE_FREQUENTLY_THAN_VERY_RARELY_COMMENT: “All the Maratha rulers from Ekoji contributed, especially to the celebration of Allah festival, which was and is ever famous in the Tanjore kingdom […] the Allah is taken out in a procession for worshipping into the area of Hindus, and there was no quarrel or ill feeling among the Hindus.” […] “The Islamic people’s peaceful co-existence with Hindus was very much perceptible in the period and they could not maintain their own identity. I was due to the fact that Islam in the Tanjore region was influenced by the native Tamils. For example saint worship is popular in the Tamil region whereas the Tamil Muslims had their faith in their worship of Pirs. Many of the Islamic festivals were identical of the Hindu festivals. Islam, in the region followed and celebrated the festivals like the Kanduri festival in all parts of the Tanjore region. Like the Hindus, the Islamic people took a procession during the Allah festival. It was very popular among the Hindus.” §REF§ (Chinnaiyan 2004, 372, 373) Chinnaiyan, S. 2004 ‘Royal Patronage to Islam in Tanjore Maratha Kingdom [As Gleaned from Modi Records].’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 65. Pp 370-374. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H5PRQ47A\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: H5PRQ47A </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 699, "name": "in_thanjavur_maratha_k", "start_year": 1675, "end_year": 1799, "long_name": "Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom", "new_name": "in_thanjavur_maratha_k", "polity_tag": "POL_SA_SI", "general_description": "The Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom was established in 1675 CE when the Maratha general Ekoji Bhonsle took control of Thanjavur and crowned himself Raja of the Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom. The capital of the Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom was the city of Thanjavur. The Thanjavur Maratha kings were devout Shaivist Hindus and contributed greatly to literature and philosophic thought. §REF§ (Srinivasan 1984, 44) Srinivasan, C.R. 1984. ‘Some Interesting Aspects of the Maratha Rule as Gleaned from the Tamil Copper-Plates of the Thanjavur Marathas’. Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India. Vol. 11. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PXQ87WQH/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PXQ87WQH/collection</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Appasamy 1980, 11) Appasamy, Jaya. 1980. Thanjavur Painting of the Maratha Period. Vol. 1. New Delhi. Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection</a> §REF§ The Thanjavur Maratha kings also patronized temple projects. §REF§ (Appasamy 1980, 9) Appasamy, Jaya. 1980. Thanjavur Painting of the Maratha Period. Vol. 1. New Delhi. Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection</a> §REF§ During certain periods of the Thanjavur Maratha rule there was political turmoil and regional fighting. By the end of the 18th century the Thanjavur Maratha kings were financially indebted to the British trading companies in the region. §REF§ (Cerulli 2020, 227) Cerulli, Anthony. ‘Allegory and History, Life and Embodiment’ In Body and Cosmos: Studies in Early Indian Medical and Astral Sciences in Honor of Kenneth G. Zysk. Edited by Jacob Schmidt-Madsen et al. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FTSCD638/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FTSCD638/collection</a> §REF§ In 1799 CE the Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom came under the Madras Presidency under the British East India Company. §REF§ (Appasamy 1980, 21) Appasamy, Jaya. 1980. Thanjavur Painting of the Maratha Period. Vol. 1. New Delhi. Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 646, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“As in the case of Hindu temples, devotees of all creeds and denominations flocked to the Muslim pilgrimage centres, giving further emphasis to the argument of blurred or practically non-existent lines of community identity.” §REF§ (Bugge, 2020) Bugge, Henriette. 2020. Mission and Tamil Society: Social and Religious Change in South India (1840-1900). London: Routledge Curzon. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9SKWNUF4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9SKWNUF4 </b></a> §REF§ “It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.” §REF§ (Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 701, "name": "in_carnatic_sul", "start_year": 1710, "end_year": 1801, "long_name": "Carnatic Sultanate", "new_name": "in_carnatic_sul", "polity_tag": "POL_SA_SI", "general_description": "The Carnatic Sultanate originated as a vassal state of the Mughal Empire. In 1710 CE The Navaiyat dynasty under Saadutullah Khan became the first nawab of the Carnatic. The Carnatic Sultanate had its capital at Arcot. The Carnatic nawabs practiced Sufi Islam and their court language was Persian. §REF§ (Bugge, 2020) Bugge, Henriette. 2020. Mission and Tamil Society: Social and Religious Change in South India (1840-1900). London: Routledge Curzon. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Ramaswami 1984, 329) Ramaswami, N.S. 1984. Political History of Carnatic Under the Nawabs. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PTIS9MB4/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PTIS9MB4/collection</a> §REF§ The Carnatic Sultanate contributed to the building of mosques, Hindu temples and educational centres. The nawabs benefitted heavily from trade and support with the British East India Company. §REF§ (Ramaswami 1984, 333) Ramaswami, N.S. 1984. Political History of Carnatic Under the Nawabs. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PTIS9MB4/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PTIS9MB4/collection</a> §REF§ By the turn of the nineteenth century the British East India Company took control of the entire Carnatic region. The nawabs of the Carnatic continued to survive until 1855 CE as dependents of the British rule. §REF§ (Bugge, 2020) Bugge, Henriette. 2020. Mission and Tamil Society: Social and Religious Change in South India (1840-1900). London: Routledge Curzon. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 645, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.\"§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 704, "name": "in_thanjavur_nayaks", "start_year": 1532, "end_year": 1676, "long_name": "Nayaks of Thanjavur", "new_name": "in_thanjavur_nayaks", "polity_tag": "POL_SA_SI", "general_description": "The Nayaks of Thanjavur originally ruled the Tamil Nadu region of Thanjavur on behalf of the Vijayanagara kings. After the decline of the Vijayanagara, the Nayaks of Thanjavur became independent rulers sometime in the 1530s CE. The Nayaks of Thanjavur had their capital in the city of Thanjavur and the major commercial port was at Nagaputtinam. §REF§ (Chakravarthy 2016, 78) Chakravarthy, Pradeep. 2016. ‘Thanjavur’s Sarasvati Muhal Library’ India International Centre Quarterly. Vol. 42:3/4. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/CU6HMURQ/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/CU6HMURQ/collection</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Chinnaiyan 2005-2006, 457) Chinnaiyan, S. 2005-2006. ‘Tax Structure in Tanjore Kingdom under the Nayaks and Marathas (A.D. 1532- 1799)’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 66. Pp 456-459. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/8WJRSDG6/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/8WJRSDG6/collection</a> §REF§The Nayaks of Thanjavur had valuable trade connections with the Dutch and the British in which they imposed taxes on the import and export of foreign goods. Trade agreements between the Nayaks of Thanjavur and the Dutch and British were recorded on various inscriptions giving insight into the particulars of these arrangements. .” §REF§ (Menon 2001, 303) Menon. A.G. 2001. ‘Copper Plates to Silver Plates: Cholas, Dutch and Buddhism’ In Fruits of Inspiration: Studies in Honour of Prof. J.G. de Caparis. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FU8TFSTT/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FU8TFSTT/collection</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Chinnaiyan 2005-2006, 457) Chinnaiyan, S. 2005-2006. ‘Tax Structure in Tanjore Kingdom under the Nayaks and Marathas (A.D. 1532- 1799)’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 66. Pp 456-459. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/8WJRSDG6/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/8WJRSDG6/collection</a> §REF§ The rule of the Nayaks of Thanjavur lasted until the 1670s when the Nayaks of Maduri overthrow the last Thanjavur nayak. The rule over Thanjavur by the Nayaks of Maduri was brief, and they were eventually succeeded by the Maratha rulers. §REF§ (Sorokhaibam 2013, 4-5) Sorokhaibam, Jeenet. 2013. Chhatrapati Shivaji: The Maratha Warrior and his Campaigns. New Delhi: Vij Books India Pvt. Ltd. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/MJ4PW3NS/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/MJ4PW3NS/collection</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 644, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.\"§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 705, "name": "in_madurai_nayaks", "start_year": 1529, "end_year": 1736, "long_name": "Nayaks of Madurai", "new_name": "in_madurai_nayaks", "polity_tag": "POL_SA_SI", "general_description": "The Nayaks of Madurai were rulers of South Tamil Nadu. The Nayaks were originally agents of the Vijayangara Empire but came independent rulers under Visvanatha Nayaka around 1529 CE. The Nayaks of Madurai had their initial capital at Madurai but moved the capital to Tiruchirappalli from 1616 CE – 1634 CE and again from 1665 CE – 1736 CE. §REF§ (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 2-24) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Pottamkulam, 2021) Pottamkulam, George Abraham. 2021. Tamilnadu A Journey in Time Part II: People, Places and Potpourri. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/25RBPDP2/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/25RBPDP2/collection</a> §REF§ The Nayaks were responsible for temple constructions, particularly under Tirumala Nayaka who was patronized the expansion of the Minaksi-Sundaresvara temple in the capital. The Nayaks of Madurai were Shaivist Hindus and celebrated many religious festivals within their temple complexes. §REF§ (Branfoot 2001, 191-227) Branfoot, Crispin. 2001. ‘Tirumala Nayaka’s ‘New Hall’ and the European Study of the South Indian Temple. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol 11:2. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FE5VZ76M/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FE5VZ76M/collection</a> §REF§ The Nayaks of Madurai were also lucrative in trade connecting with the Dutch East Indian Company and the Portuguese. §REF§ (Vink 2015, 179-183) Vink, Markus. 2015. Encounters on the Opposite Coast: The Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9U7MCK4E/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9U7MCK4E/collection</a> §REF§<br> By the end of the 17th century CE, the Nayaks of Madurai were in decline and by 1736, the Nayaks were succeeded by the Carnatic Sultanate after the suicide of the last Nayak Queen, Minaski. §REF§ (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 1) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 643, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "While the following quote does not give an explicit example of societal violence, the quote does suggest that there was societal hostility towards minority faiths. “Third, minority communities faced some sanction from certain strata of the Shi’i hierarchy. The level and ferocity of the sanction varied, depending on the status of the community concerned (the Baha’i experience, for example, was different from that of Iranian Jews under Qajar rule) and the characters of the clergy involved, but all did face restrictive measures enacted either by the state under clergy pressure, or by rogue individuals outside of local and national control.” §REF§ (Gleave 2005, 11). Gleave, Robert. 2005 ‘Religion and Society in Qajar Iran: An Introduction.’ In Religion and Society in Qajar Iran. Edited by Robert Gleave. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EGMITHFH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EGMITHFH </b></a> §REF§ “By the late eighth century, during the early Qajar period, they had become a demoralise and predominantly poor group. The Qajar kings and government officials were usually oblivious to the plight of the minorities, leaving them at the mercy of local governments or authorities. Jews were typically harassed at tax time in order to extract funds beyond the jizya; some merchants sought to eliminate Jewish rivals by falsely accusing them and running up unpaid debts; at times, minor numbers of the clergy incited sentiments against Jews to increase their own following.” […] “The major mujtahids, it must be noted, were rarely directly involved in persecutions and occasional would rescue the victims and intervene in quiet the frenzy of the mob which attacked them. However, among these mujtahids, true protectors of the minorities were still quite rare. In this atmosphere, the new Babi and Baha’i converts and the Jews were often the targets of harsh treatment by Muslims. While the mullas were the culprits and the government turned a blind eye to most incidents, the principal protectors, if any, were foreigners.” […] “Non-Muslims were easy targets and the Jews were the smallest and most defenceless of the religious minorities in Iran. The Armenians and other Christians fared comparatively well, since representatives of European countries strongly protected their Christian brethren. Though the Zoroastrians had also been severely persecuted in the past, at this time because of their concentration in areas of British influence and because of the influence of the Parsees under the British Raj, they enjoyed some protection as well.” […] “By the last decade of the nineteenth century, however, persecution of the Jews was quite common, although its degree depended on the local authority, the power of sympathetic clergy or the severity of the accusation. With no reliable domestic sympathisers and no foreign protectors, the Jews were indeed quite vulnerable.” […] “Also in Hamadan, the Jews were active in the bazaar and by the turn of the century they controlled the imported textile trade of Iran. Consequently, there were a number of wealthy Jewish merchants there. However, in spite of the business relationships, or maybe because of them, occasional conflicts and incidents of persecution could not be prevented.” […] “On 24 September 1892, news arrived in London via Baghdad that a clergyman named Akhund Mulla ‘Abd Allah had ordered the massacre of the Jews in Hamadan and the pillage of their property. The immediate intervention of coreligionists in London and Paris was request. The details soon became clear: a mob had attacked the Jewish community of Hamadan, demanding their death or conversion. The Jews barricaded themselves in their houses.” […] “Habib Levi writes that earlier that year [1892], a Jewish girl in Hamadan was kidnapped by Muslims, forcefully converted and married to a Muslim by Akhund Mullah ‘Abd Allah, who had recently come to that city.” […] “His [Akhund Mullah ‘Abd Allah] main activity was to curse Babis, Sufis and Shaykhis, all of who he considered najis (ritually unclean), and, to gain attention, he instigated attacks on the Shaykhis, Babis and Jews.” […] “After his initial attacks on the Shaykhis, Mulla ‘Abd Allah turned against the Jews. He told his group to round up the Jews and make them wear a patch. The mob attacked their houses and shops and told the Jews that their release could only come by their death or conversion.” […] “Jewish organisations abroad expressed their fear that such incidents might spread to other areas of Iran. Their fears were warranted, as unrest flared up in Yazd and Shiraz, directed against Jews and Zoroastrians.” […] “Less than two years after this, once again anti-Jewish sentiments emerged. Complaining that the Jewish fabric sellers in Tehran were selling their goods at a lower price and thus taking their profits, the Muslim merchants closed the bazaar and anti-Jewish disturbances broke out.” §REF§ (Sahim 2005, 293, 294 -295, 299, 303) Sahmi, Haideh. 2005 ‘Jews of Iran in the Qajar Period: Persecution and Perseverance.’ In Religion and Society in Qajar Iran. Edited by Robert Gleave. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MJGC2IH2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MJGC2IH2 </b></a> §REF§ “Baha’allah was born Mirza Husayn ‘Ali Nuri in 1817 in Tehran, the son of a high Iranian government official. He joined the millenarian Babi movement in 1844. When it was suppressed by the Qajar state and the Shi’ite clergy he was branded a heretic. In 1850 the leader of the movement, ‘Ali Muhammad Shirazi, the Bab, was executed, and as a result in 1852, a cabal of disgruntled Babis in the capital made an unsuccessful attempt to assassinate the Shah.” §REF§ (Cole 2005, 312-312) Cole, Juan R.I. 2005. ‘The Evolution of Charismatic Authority in the Baha’i Faith (1863-1912).’ In Religion and Society in Qajar Iran. Edited by Robert Gleave. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MDB6MWQU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MDB6MWQU </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 509, "name": "IrQajar", "start_year": 1794, "end_year": 1925, "long_name": "Qajar", "new_name": "ir_qajar_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Qajar Dynasty was in place in Iran from 1794-1925 CE following a 50-year struggle between Qajar tribal leaders for the throne from 1747. Eventually Aqa Mohammad Khan Qajar (c.1742-c.1797) was crowned in 1796 and founded this dynasty. §REF§ (Ghani 2000, 1) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qaja Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London. §REF§ <br>By 1900 CE this polity had assumed what is now modern Iranian borders, and the territory had decreased from approximately 2 million km2 in 1800 to 1.6million km2 in 1900. The population however had increased from approximately 6 million to 10 million people by 1900 §REF§ (Martin 2005, 15) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London. §REF§ , with the largest settlement, Tehran, holding about 210,000 inhabitants.Settlement hierarchies were similar to previous polities, and included the capital city, other large regional cities, towns and villages. Although there was some centralisation of power, communication and bureaucratic reach was limited, and the Shah relied on the cooperation of many groups to keep administration running and by 1903 there was a movement calling for political reform. §REF§ (Martin 2005, 13-14) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London. §REF§ §REF§ (Ghani 2000, 7) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London. §REF§ <br>In 1851 the first institution of higher education, the polytechnic institute Dar ul-Funun which offered studies in medicine, engineering, geology, and military sciences, was founded by Prime Minister Amir Kabir. §REF§ (Maranlou 2016, 144-145) Sahar Maranlou. Modernization Prospects For Legal Education In Iran. Mutaz M Qafisheh. Stephen A Rosenbaum. eds. 2016. Experimental Legal Education in a Globalized World: The Middle East and Beyond. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Newcastle upon Tyne. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 642, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Despite the fact eventually Christianity and Islam did separate from each other decisively, it appears that for much of the Umayyad period, and perhaps for some time after the fall of the Umayyads in 750, individuals who identified primarily with various Christian communities and those belonging to the community of Believers-becoming-Muslims managed to live together, often in relative harmony. As one scholar had recently put it: ‘Syriac Christians ate with Muslims, married Muslims, bequeathed estates to Muslim heirs, taught Muslim children, and were soldiers in Muslim armies. As we have seen, at various times, they shared worship spaces with Muslims, served as high advisors to Umayyad rulers, received material support from Muslims, and saw their bishops honored by Muslim governors. However contentious and oppressive Muslim rule may have eventually become for Christians, it would be misleading to assume that systematic hostility was characteristic of the Umayyad period.” §REF§ (Donner 2020, 33) Donner, Fred. 2020. ‘Living together: social perceptions and changing interactions of Arabian Believers and other religious communities during the Umayyad Period’. In The Umayyad World. Edited by Andrew Marsham. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8QC56ACW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8QC56ACW </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "SyCalUm", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750, "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "new_name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Umayyad Caliphate was formed in 661 CE by Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan following the assassination of Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. §REF§ (Madelung 1997, 108, 297) Wilferd Madelung. 1997. <i>The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It ended with the defeat of the Umayyads by the Abbasids in the Third Fitna (a series of Muslim civil wars) in 750 CE. §REF§ (Esposito, ed. 2003, 691) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Ummayad Caliphs, based in Damascus in Syria, ruled a large territory stretching from the Near East all the way through North Africa and into southern Spain.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The caliph was a tribal patriarch and head of the <i>ummah</i>, the entire Islamic community. The central government of the Umayyad Caliphate was almost non-existent at the start of the period but entered a more developed stage in the mid-8th century. One of the reasons for this lack of central administration was the exceptionally successful Arab-Muslim army combined with the existence of functioning bureaucracies in the former Sassanid and Byzantine domains, which were left largely intact. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 55) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Thus, under Muawiya - the first Ummayad Caliph - the ruler was 'surrounded by Arab chiefs' with no other central administration. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 80-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ At Damascus, an administrative system staffed by permanent officials §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 36-38) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ dates from the reigns of al-Malik (685-705 CE) and al-Walid (705-715 CE). §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 80-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The caliphs, from their residence in Damascus (661-744 CE) and then Harran (744-750 CE), employed a chamberlain to manage visitors and regulate daily affairs, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 80-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and maintained an office of the chancery §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 50-51) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ with officials called <i>diwans</i> to manage the collection of taxes and payment of salaries. §REF§ (Kennedy 2001, 88) Hugh N. Kennedy. 2001. <i>The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ In order to impose their authority over the provinces, which had a combined population of up to 33 million, §REF§ (Blankinship 1994, 37-38) Khalid Y. Blankinship. 1994. <i>The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd Al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads</i>. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. §REF§ the Umayyads typically sent civil and military governors (<i>amel</i> and <i>amir</i>). §REF§ (Lambton 2011) Ann K. S. Lambton. 2011. 'Cities iii: Administration and Social Organization', in <i>Encyclopedia Iranica</i> V/6, 607-23; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a> (accessed 2 April 2017). §REF§ In the regions they conquered, the Ummayads had no choice but to use the resident staff because institutions to train and educate bureaucrats had not yet developed in the Arab Muslim context. In Egypt, for the first century of Umayyad rule, 'all the provincial officials were Christians'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 17) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The Umayyad Caliphate was thus an exceptionally multicultural empire with a diverse governmental and cultural heritage.<br>This diversity was reflected in the number of languages spoken across the territory conquered by Muslims: from Basque in the far west to Berber and African Romance languages along the southern shores of the Mediterranean, and Aramaic, Turkic, Hebrew, Armenian and Kurdish in the east. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 126) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The use of Arabic as an administrative language began in Iraq in 697 CE, but spread outwards to Syria, Egypt and, by 700 CE, Khurasan in modern-day northeastern Iran. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 36-38) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In Egypt, the adoption of Arabic as the language of local government took over 100 years; initially, almost all papyruses were written in Greek. The first known bilingual Greek-Arabic document dates to 643 CE, and the last to 719. The earliest known Egyptian document written exclusively in Arabic is dated to 709 CE, and Greek was still being used up until 780 CE. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 23) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "JR: edited long name from Ummayad to Umayyad", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-03-27T09:30:27.298805Z", "home_nga": { "id": 8, "name": "Southern Mesopotamia", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "44.420000000000", "latitude": "32.470000000000", "capital_city": "Babylon (Hillah)", "nga_code": "IQ", "fao_country": "Iraq", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 61, "name": "Levant", "subregions_list": "Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }