Soc Vio Freq Rel Grp List
A viewset for viewing and editing Social Violence Against Religious Groups.
GET /api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?ordering=-description&page=3
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Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JFZXH7PI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JFZXH7PI </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "CnQingE", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796, "long_name": "Early Qing", "new_name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Qing Dynasty (or Empire of the Great Qing, Great Qing, Manchu Dynasty, Manchus, Jin, Jurchens, Ch'ing Dynasty) was China's last imperial dynasty. The founders of the Qing were descendants of Jurchen Jin rulers. The dynasty was founded by Nurhaci and then led by his son Huang Taiji, but did not become an imperial Chinese dynasty until after Huang Taiji's death. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ In 1644 CE, Qing forces captured the Ming capital at Beijing from rebels and held a funeral for the last Ming emperor to symbolize Qing inheritance of the Mandate of Heaven. §REF§ (San 2014, 338) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ <br>The Qing faced conflict with rebels and loyalist Ming forces for the next two decades. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ Ming generals who surrendered were given power over large territories in southern China in exchange for loyalty to the Qing. In 1673 CE, leaders from three major southern feudatories led by Wu Sangui rebelled against Emperor Kangxi when he tried to reduce their power. §REF§ (San 2014, 385) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ The Revolt of the Three Feudatories, as this episode is known, lasted eight years.<br>We divide the Qing Dynasty into two, an Early period (1644-1796 CE) and a Late period (1796-1912 CE). The division is marked by a period of internal turmoil as well as foreign incursions into its territory and economic sphere. In the Early Qing period, China had been prosperous under Kangxi and Qing rule, but by the time of the Opium Wars in the Late Qing, Western technology and industry had surpassed that of China. §REF§ (Mao 2005, 8) Haijin Mao. 2005. <i>The Qing Empire and the Opium War: The Collapse of the Heavenly Dynasty</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 gave rise to the Republic of China.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Qing ruled over an expansive empire, and its bureaucracy was more efficient than that of previous periods. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 1) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Qing rulers adopted the Chinese bureaucratic system first used in the Han and Tang Dynasties. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Dynasty Government, Administration and Law'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-admin.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ Before conquering the Ming, the Qing managed its population through a system of hereditary military organizations called the Eight Banners. §REF§ (Elliot 2011, 39) Mark C. Elliot. 2001. <i>The Manchu Way</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. §REF§ These became part of the administrative structure of the Qing Dynasty and were only open to those of Manchu descent. §REF§ (Elliot 2011, 39) Mark C. Elliot. 2001. <i>The Manchu Way</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. §REF§ In the later Qing period, however, the Eight Banners lost some of their political functions and served to enhance the prestige of the top Qing nobility. §REF§ (Elliot 2011, 40) Mark C. Elliot. 2001. <i>The Manchu Way</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. §REF§ <br>The central government was headed by the emperor and included a 'Grand Council', created by the Yongzheng emperor and expanded by the Qianlong emperor. §REF§ (Lorge 2005, 173) Peter Lorge. 2005. <i>War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900-1795</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ The Grand Council ruled over the central ministries and provided a way for the emperor to circumvent the official bureaucracy for many decisions. §REF§ (Lorge 2005, 173) Peter Lorge. 2005. <i>War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900-1795</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br>The Qing provincial government consisted of governors who controlled a hierarchical system of officials, prefects, county chiefs, country magistrates, and clerks. §REF§ (Zhang 2011, 63) Wei-Bin Zhang. 2011. <i>The Rise and Fall of China's Last Dynasty: The Deepening of the Chinese Servility</i>. Hauppage, NY: Nova Science Publishers. §REF§ In the early Qing years, provinces were ruled by high ranking officials who were typically of Manchu descent. §REF§ (Hsu 2006, 415) Cho-yun Hsu. 2006. <i>China: A New Cultural History</i>. New York: Columbia University Press. §REF§ <br>The territory of the Qing empire was more than double that of the Ming. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 1) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Tibetans, Uighurs, Muslims, a number of Mongol groups, Burmese, Thais, and indigenous Taiwanese were incorporated into the Chinese empire. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 1) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>Three Qing emperors - Kangxi (1662-1722 CE), Yongzheng (1723-1735 CE), and Qianlong (1736-1795 CE) - are historically known as great rulers. During their reigns, China was extremely prosperous. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ Qianlong is famous for leading ten military expeditions, including campaigns in Taiwan, Burma, Vietnam and Nepal. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>Based on Chinese census and registration counts, the population of China in 1749 CE was about 177.5 million. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 4) Judith Banister. 1987. <i>China's Changing Population</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§ The following century was one of extremely rapid population growth, and by 1851 the population had reached 431.9 million people. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 3-4) Judith Banister. 1987. <i>China's Changing Population</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§ Historian James Z. Gao writes that the area within the Qing court's 'sphere of influence' at its peak was 13.1 million square kilometres'. §REF§ (Gao 2009, xxxvi) James Z. Gao. 2009. <i>Historical Dictionary of Modern China (1800-1949)</i>. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§ <br>While the Qing period is not well known for poetry, painting and porcelain as previous periods are, print journalism, theatre and novels flourished under the Qing emperors. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 2) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-17T15:40:34.789180Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 609, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“The historical periods within which the new continental culture, including Buddhism, was slowly as often painfully assimilated are called the Asuka and the Hakuho. The Asuka period began with disputes over the new Buddhist faith: some factions wanted Japan to adopt it, but others were opposed. The Buddhist cause was taken up by the powerful Soga family but was opposed by the Mononobe and Nakatomi houses, who had traditional Shinto priestly roles. The argument deteriorated into civil war out of which the Soga prevailed. Soga no Umako completed his seizure of power in 592 by arranging the assassination of the emperor.” §REF§ (Ellwood and Pilgrim 1985, 23) Ellwood, Robert and Pilgrim Richard. 1985. Japanese Religion: A Cultural Perspective. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VRQCT8UW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VRQCT8UW </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 146, "name": "JpAsuka", "start_year": 538, "end_year": 710, "long_name": "Asuka", "new_name": "jp_asuka", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The last segment of the Kofun period is often designated by historians as Asuka period on the basis of the intoduction of the Buddhism religion in 538 CE. §REF§ G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 15. §REF§ §REF§ Brooks, T, 2013. \"Early Japanese Urbanism: A Study of the Urbanism of Proto-historic Japan and Continuities from the Yayoi to the Asuka Periods.\"Unpublished thesis, Sydney University, 11. §REF§ As a consequence the historical period \"Asuka\" overlaps with the archaeological period \"Kofun\" until 710 CE.The Asuka period can be divided into two main phases. The first phase covers the period (572-645 CE) when four successive heads of the Soga clan were leading figures at court: Saga no Iname, Saga no Umako, Siga no Emishi, and Soga no Ir. The second period is the phase after the violent overthrow of the Soga which was dominated by Tenchi Tenno, his brother Temmu Tenno, and Temmu's widow Jito Tenno from 645 to 692. It ends with the abdication of Jito Tenno in favor of her son Mommu and the move of the capital to the Heijō Palace of Nara. §REF§ Brown, D., 1993.The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 2.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 164-190. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In this period there is the establishment of a central administrative control with the introduction of the Ritsuryo law system based on Chinese style law codes. §REF§ G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 15. §REF§ §REF§ Farris, WW 1998, Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues in Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan, University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu. §REF§ The introduction of Buddhism in Japan was favoured by the Soga clan, a Japanese court family, which acquired political prominence with the ascension of the emperor Kimmei in 531. §REF§ McCallum, D. F., 2009. The Four Great Temples: Buddhist Archaeology, Architecture, and Icons of Seventh-Century Japan. Honolulu: University of Haway Press, 19-21. §REF§ The Soga clan intoduced Chinese model-based fiscal policies, etsablished the first national treasury and promoted trade links with the Korean peninsula. §REF§ Brown, D., 1993.The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 2.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 163-164. §REF§ With the Taika reform the size of large burial tumuli (kofun) was strongly decreased by imperial decree. §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013 The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 319. §REF§ The disappearance of large tumuli coincided with the emergence of a marked pyramidal hierarchy indicated by the difference in the burial assemblage. §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 320. §REF§ In the seventh century a deceased person was buried in individual, very small round tumuli, which were much smaller than the preceding monumental mounded tombs. However, burial tumuli disapperead at the end of the seventh century. §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 320. §REF§ §REF§ Barnes, GL 1993, China, Korea and Japan: The Rise of Civilization in East Asia, Thames and Hudson, London, 251-255. §REF§ During this period elites began devoting resources to the building of Buddhist temples, which explains the reduction in size of tombs §REF§ Brooks, T, 2013. \"Early Japanese Urbanism: A Study of the Urbanism of Proto-historic Japan and Continuities from the Yayoi to the Asuka Periods.\"Unpublished thesis, Sydney University, 43. §REF§ §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 322-323. §REF§ <br>We have estimated the population of Kansai to be between 1.5 million and 2 million people in 600 CE, and between 2 million and 3 million by 700 CE. §REF§ Kidder, J. E., 2007. Himiko and Japan's elusive chiefdom of Yamatai: archaeology, history, and mythology. University of Hawaii Press, 60. §REF§ §REF§ Koyama, S., 1978. Jomon Subsistence and Population. Senri Ethnological Studies 2. Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-12-19T08:45:11.147310Z", "home_nga": { "id": 21, "name": "Kansai", "subregion": "Northeast Asia", "longitude": "135.762200000000", "latitude": "35.025280000000", "capital_city": "Kyoto", "nga_code": "JP", "fao_country": "Japan", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 14, "name": "Northeast Asia", "subregions_list": "Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 641, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“The archaeological record of the Archaic period (ca. 8000–2000 BC) is still very fragmentary, and this hinders understanding both of the change from foraging societies to kin-based villages and of the development of early hierarchical polities.” §REF§ (Nichols & Pool 2012, 13) Nichols, Deborah L. and Pool, Christopher A. 2012. ‘Mesoamerican Archaeology: Recent Trends’. In The Oxford handbook of Mesoamerican Archaeology. Edited by Deborah L. Nichols and Christopher A. Pool. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/I2EHZSUW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: I2EHZSUW </b></a> §REF§ “Even greater difficulties are faced when it comes to reconstructing social organization, ceremonialism, and ideology from the archaeological traces of people whose material manifestations of these phenomena, even where preserved, were very limited.” §REF§ (Zeitlin & Zeitlin 2000, 50) Zeitlin Robert N. and Zeitlin Judith Francis. 2000. ‘The Paleoindian and Archaic Cultures of Mesoamerica’. In The Cambridge History of the native People of the Americas. Vol II: Mesoamerica. Part I. Edited by Richard E.W. Adams and Murdo J. MacLeod. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C6KJ9FU9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: C6KJ9FU9 </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 6, "name": "MxArch*", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -2001, "long_name": "Archaic Basin of Mexico", "new_name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Archaic or Pre-Ceramic period (c. 6000-2001 BCE). This period may be described as a long, gradual transition from a lifestyle centred on big-game hunting prevalent in the preceding \"Paleo-Indian\" period to a sedentary, agricultural lifestyle in the succeeding \"Formative\" period. Indeed, Archaic sites are defined by their lack of both large animal remains and ceramics. §REF§ (Kennett 2012: 141) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RTF3FP57\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RTF3FP57</a>. §REF§ No population estimates could be found in the consulted literature. Similarly, no information could be found on the political organisation of settlements at the time.<br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 27, "name": "Basin of Mexico", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-99.130000000000", "latitude": "19.430000000000", "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico", "nga_code": "MX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 640, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“The Late Archaic and initial Formative of the central highlands of Mexico are still poorly understood. Niederberger (1976, 1979) found evidence for year-round exploitation of the lake environment at Tlapacoya-Zohapilco around 2500-2000 B.C., suggestive of early sedentism tied to abundant natural resources. There is not, however, evidence for large Late Archaic populations, sedentary or otherwise, and indeed, the Formative is likewise poorly known before approximately 1400 B.C. The Nevada phase in the basin is identified primarily from Zohapilco. The best record of pre-1400 B.C settlement comes from lower-lying areas of Morelos and Puebla (Aviles 1997; Cyphers Guillen and Grove 1987; Grove 1974; Hirth 1987). It is only with Manantial and related phases beginning circa 1150 B.C. (2950 B.P. in radiocarbon years) that occupation is documented across much of central Mexico (e.g., Aufdermauer 1973; Niederberger 1987; Ramirez et al. 2000; Tolstoy 1989).” §REF§ (Lesure et al. 2006, 475-476) Lesure et al. 2006. ‘Chronology, Subsistence, and the Earliest Formative of Central Tlaxcala, Mexico’. Latin American Antiquity. Vol. 17:4. Pp. 474-492. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XMXH6V7V\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XMXH6V7V </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 7, "name": "MxInitl", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1201, "long_name": "Initial Formative Basin of Mexico", "new_name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Initial Formative period (c. 2000-1201 BCE). At the start of this period, maize, squash, and other food crops had been domesticated; however, the earliest known pottery and the earliest known settled villages in the region date to a few centuries later, between 1600 and 1400 BCE. §REF§ (Pool 2012: 171) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6</a>. §REF§ <br>No population estimates could be found in the consulted literature; however, knowing that the site of Tlatilco (which was rather large for its time, and which was settled toward the end of this period) covered about 65 hectares (i.e. 160 acres), §REF§ (Coe 1994: 46) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5DJ2S5IF\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5DJ2S5IF</a>. §REF§ we may estimate that it had a population of between 3,000 and 13,000 people, assuming between 50 and 200 per hectare. No information could be found on the political organisation of settlements at the time, though it is worth noting that, beginning in 1500 BCE, the Basin developed a two-tiered settlement system, §REF§ (Evans 2004: 124) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA</a>. §REF§ suggesting perhaps a hierarchical relationship between larger settlements and smaller ones. Moreover, the ability of certain segments of the population to intensify and control access to staples and ceremonial foods likely led to the earliest emergence of social inequalities and political hierarchies. §REF§ (Pool 2012: 171) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 27, "name": "Basin of Mexico", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-99.130000000000", "latitude": "19.430000000000", "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico", "nga_code": "MX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 571, "year_from": 1607, "year_to": 1644, "description": "“The Chinese people's resistance also began from the temples and may have had a very targeted character. In Shaozhou, some \"robbers\" attacked Matteo Ricci's church, but \"they retreated with nothing to show for it to a nearby temple, where they very likely came from\"; in despair, \"they sacrificed to idols in a temple for their own cause and then jointly swore to expel Europeans from Shaozhou.\" Later, when the people of Shaozhou could no longer tolerate the smell emanating from the burning of idols by the faithful Christians, they submitted a petition to the government. This was precisely during the period when the hardline representative Nicholas Longobardi was preaching in Shaozhou. He made great progress in converting people and in destroying temples and idols, which aroused strong dissatisfaction among the local clergy and ordinary people. Just as Shaozhou was hit by a drought, people blamed the burning of the Bodhisattva statue by the Christians for the lack of rainfall, and the two sides engaged in a fierce dispute, with some even plotting to kill Longobardi. In Nanchang, faced with the threat to Chinese cultural traditions posed by missionary activities, \"scholars brought charges against the Europeans, saying that they prohibited people from revering their ancestral idols, did not leave any heirs, and caused temples to become desolate, disturbing the city and countryside.\" Many ordinary people even went to the homes of the Christians to persuade them not to abandon their own gods and ancestors. As a result, when a fire broke out in one of the Christian's homes, no one in the neighborhood went to put it out, reasoning that they had abandoned their own gods and therefore deserved to be punished by the fire. (中国民众的反击也是从寺庙出发进行的，也许具有极鲜明的针对性。在韶州，一些“强盗”袭击了利玛窦的教堂，最后“他们一无所得地撤退到附近的寺庙里，他们很可能就是从那里来的”；而且“他们在绝望中，为自己的事情在一座庙里向偶像献祭，然后他们共同发誓要把欧洲人驱逐出韶州”。后来韶州人对教徒“焚毁偶像，由此发出的气味飘进寺里”再也难以忍受，便通过正常渠道向政府递交诉状。这时正是强硬派代表龙华民（Nicholas Longobardi）在韶州传教时期，他在吸收教徒、废庙毁像方面进展很大，引起当地僧俗的强烈不满。正好韶州遭遇旱灾，人们向神祈雨不灵，便归咎于教徒之焚烧观音像，双方发生激烈争执，甚至有人密谋杀掉龙华民。在南昌，迫于传教士活动对中国文化传统的危害，“诸士人遂诉于官，谓欧罗巴人禁人敬奉祖先遗像，不留后嗣，使寺庙荒寂，城乡骚扰”。很多老百姓还跑到教徒们的家里劝他们不要抛弃本国的神癨；结果有一位教徒家里着了火，四邻也不去救，理由就是他们抛弃了自己的神，所以应该让火去惩罚他们。)”§REF§ Zhao, Shiyu. (2002). Carnival and Daily Life: Temple Fairs and Folk Society since the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Beijing: Sanlian Shudian Press. §REF§“The Nanjing anti-Christian cases of 1616 and 1621, as well as the Fujian case, were all instigated by high-ranking officials, whereas the Nanchang case of 1607, the Nanjing case of 1608, and the Fu'an case of 1608 were initiated by the folk people. The Fu'an case relied on the power of kinship, while the Nanchang case appealed to the \"public opinion of scholars,\" representing two typical modes of popular anti-Christian movements. (從教案發動者來看，1616 年南京教案、1621 年南京教案和福建教案均由高級官員發動，1607 年南昌教案、1608 年南京教案、 福安教案則起自民間。福安教案依託於宗族力量，南昌教案則訴諸 “士人公議”，分別代表了民間排教的兩種典型模式。) ”§REF§ Huang, Yun. \"The Nanchang Anti-Christian Case of 1607: Its Charges, Theories and Background.\" Journal for the Study of Christian Culture, No. 28, 2012, pp. 130-156. Beijing: Institute for the Study of Christian Culture. §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "CnMing*", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644, "long_name": "Great Ming", "new_name": "cn_ming_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "After 300 years of rule by outsiders, the Ming Dynasty, lasting from the fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries CE, restored Chinese rule to the region. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ The dynasty was founded by a peasant rebel general, Zhu Yuanzhang, later known as Emperor Taizu or the Hongwu Emperor. §REF§ (Brook 1998, 8) Timothy Brook. 1998. <i>The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Taizu destroyed the Yuan capital in Beijing, forced the Mongols to retreat to Mongolia, and founded the Ming capital in Nanjing in 1368 CE. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 191) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The period saw a resurgence of Chinese intellectualism and economic activity, §REF§ (Mote, Twitchett and Fairbank 1988, 1) Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank. 1988 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644</i>, edited by Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, 1-10. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ but Ming emperors often struggled to control their massive empire and they do not tend to number among the Chinese emperors considered 'great' by historians. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 216) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Ming expanded their territory to the southwest during their rule. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 190) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, they never expanded into Mongolia - conflict with the Mongols in the north led the Ming emperors instead to carry out restorations works on the Great Wall. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The Dynasty came to an end in 1644 CE, when the region was re-captured by descendants of Jin Dynasty's Jurchen rulers from Manchuria known as Qing.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Ming emperors were not consistent in their style of rule. While Emperor Taizu ruled as an autocrat, some Ming emperors left the governance of the nation in the hands of officials and eunuchs. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 216) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The emperor presided over the central government in concert with various levels of chief ministers and imperial officials, and the central government structure was replicated on a smaller scale at the provincial level. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ Officials were recruited through an examination system. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The period was marked by increasing openness to non-Confucian ideas and an increase in literacy among the lower levels of society. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Intellectual culture flourished among the elites §REF§ (Mote, Twitchett and Fairbank 1988, 1) Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank. 1988 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644</i>, edited by Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, 1-10. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and the publishing industry expanded greatly in the Lower Yangtze region. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 190) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Novels, including <i>The Romance of the Three Kingdoms</i> and <i>Water Margin</i>, and the play <i>Peony Pavilion</i> were written in the Ming period. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The rapid growth of the international trading system along with foreign desire for Chinese porcelain and silk led to large increases in foreign trade and an influx of silver into the Ming economy. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In the later Ming period, trade conflicts impacted China's foreign silver supply, leading to massive deflation. The Ming government, near bankruptcy, could not fund military campaigns against the rebellion spreading through the nation. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 215) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Ming population was between 60 million and 66.5 million in 1400 CE and 90 million and 110 million in 1600 CE. §REF§ 《明太祖實錄 卷140》 §REF§ §REF§ (Weatherhead East Asian Institute 2008) Weatherhead East Asian Institute. 2008. 'Issues and Trends in China's Demographic History'. Asia for Educators. Columbia University. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-17T15:39:57.138564Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 570, "year_from": 1368, "year_to": 1606, "description": "“The Chinese people's resistance also began from the temples and may have had a very targeted character. In Shaozhou, some \"robbers\" attacked Matteo Ricci's church, but \"they retreated with nothing to show for it to a nearby temple, where they very likely came from\"; in despair, \"they sacrificed to idols in a temple for their own cause and then jointly swore to expel Europeans from Shaozhou.\" Later, when the people of Shaozhou could no longer tolerate the smell emanating from the burning of idols by the faithful Christians, they submitted a petition to the government. This was precisely during the period when the hardline representative Nicholas Longobardi was preaching in Shaozhou. He made great progress in converting people and in destroying temples and idols, which aroused strong dissatisfaction among the local clergy and ordinary people. Just as Shaozhou was hit by a drought, people blamed the burning of the Bodhisattva statue by the Christians for the lack of rainfall, and the two sides engaged in a fierce dispute, with some even plotting to kill Longobardi. In Nanchang, faced with the threat to Chinese cultural traditions posed by missionary activities, \"scholars brought charges against the Europeans, saying that they prohibited people from revering their ancestral idols, did not leave any heirs, and caused temples to become desolate, disturbing the city and countryside.\" Many ordinary people even went to the homes of the Christians to persuade them not to abandon their own gods and ancestors. As a result, when a fire broke out in one of the Christian's homes, no one in the neighborhood went to put it out, reasoning that they had abandoned their own gods and therefore deserved to be punished by the fire. (中国民众的反击也是从寺庙出发进行的，也许具有极鲜明的针对性。在韶州，一些“强盗”袭击了利玛窦的教堂，最后“他们一无所得地撤退到附近的寺庙里，他们很可能就是从那里来的”；而且“他们在绝望中，为自己的事情在一座庙里向偶像献祭，然后他们共同发誓要把欧洲人驱逐出韶州”。后来韶州人对教徒“焚毁偶像，由此发出的气味飘进寺里”再也难以忍受，便通过正常渠道向政府递交诉状。这时正是强硬派代表龙华民（Nicholas Longobardi）在韶州传教时期，他在吸收教徒、废庙毁像方面进展很大，引起当地僧俗的强烈不满。正好韶州遭遇旱灾，人们向神祈雨不灵，便归咎于教徒之焚烧观音像，双方发生激烈争执，甚至有人密谋杀掉龙华民。在南昌，迫于传教士活动对中国文化传统的危害，“诸士人遂诉于官，谓欧罗巴人禁人敬奉祖先遗像，不留后嗣，使寺庙荒寂，城乡骚扰”。很多老百姓还跑到教徒们的家里劝他们不要抛弃本国的神癨；结果有一位教徒家里着了火，四邻也不去救，理由就是他们抛弃了自己的神，所以应该让火去惩罚他们。)”§REF§ Zhao, Shiyu. (2002). Carnival and Daily Life: Temple Fairs and Folk Society since the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Beijing: Sanlian Shudian Press. §REF§“The Nanjing anti-Christian cases of 1616 and 1621, as well as the Fujian case, were all instigated by high-ranking officials, whereas the Nanchang case of 1607, the Nanjing case of 1608, and the Fu'an case of 1608 were initiated by the folk people. The Fu'an case relied on the power of kinship, while the Nanchang case appealed to the \"public opinion of scholars,\" representing two typical modes of popular anti-Christian movements. (從教案發動者來看，1616 年南京教案、1621 年南京教案和福建教案均由高級官員發動，1607 年南昌教案、1608 年南京教案、 福安教案則起自民間。福安教案依託於宗族力量，南昌教案則訴諸 “士人公議”，分別代表了民間排教的兩種典型模式。) ”§REF§ Huang, Yun. \"The Nanchang Anti-Christian Case of 1607: Its Charges, Theories and Background.\" Journal for the Study of Christian Culture, No. 28, 2012, pp. 130-156. Beijing: Institute for the Study of Christian Culture. §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "CnMing*", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644, "long_name": "Great Ming", "new_name": "cn_ming_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "After 300 years of rule by outsiders, the Ming Dynasty, lasting from the fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries CE, restored Chinese rule to the region. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ The dynasty was founded by a peasant rebel general, Zhu Yuanzhang, later known as Emperor Taizu or the Hongwu Emperor. §REF§ (Brook 1998, 8) Timothy Brook. 1998. <i>The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Taizu destroyed the Yuan capital in Beijing, forced the Mongols to retreat to Mongolia, and founded the Ming capital in Nanjing in 1368 CE. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 191) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The period saw a resurgence of Chinese intellectualism and economic activity, §REF§ (Mote, Twitchett and Fairbank 1988, 1) Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank. 1988 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644</i>, edited by Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, 1-10. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ but Ming emperors often struggled to control their massive empire and they do not tend to number among the Chinese emperors considered 'great' by historians. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 216) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Ming expanded their territory to the southwest during their rule. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 190) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, they never expanded into Mongolia - conflict with the Mongols in the north led the Ming emperors instead to carry out restorations works on the Great Wall. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The Dynasty came to an end in 1644 CE, when the region was re-captured by descendants of Jin Dynasty's Jurchen rulers from Manchuria known as Qing.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Ming emperors were not consistent in their style of rule. While Emperor Taizu ruled as an autocrat, some Ming emperors left the governance of the nation in the hands of officials and eunuchs. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 216) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The emperor presided over the central government in concert with various levels of chief ministers and imperial officials, and the central government structure was replicated on a smaller scale at the provincial level. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ Officials were recruited through an examination system. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The period was marked by increasing openness to non-Confucian ideas and an increase in literacy among the lower levels of society. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Intellectual culture flourished among the elites §REF§ (Mote, Twitchett and Fairbank 1988, 1) Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank. 1988 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644</i>, edited by Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, 1-10. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and the publishing industry expanded greatly in the Lower Yangtze region. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 190) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Novels, including <i>The Romance of the Three Kingdoms</i> and <i>Water Margin</i>, and the play <i>Peony Pavilion</i> were written in the Ming period. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The rapid growth of the international trading system along with foreign desire for Chinese porcelain and silk led to large increases in foreign trade and an influx of silver into the Ming economy. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In the later Ming period, trade conflicts impacted China's foreign silver supply, leading to massive deflation. The Ming government, near bankruptcy, could not fund military campaigns against the rebellion spreading through the nation. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 215) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Ming population was between 60 million and 66.5 million in 1400 CE and 90 million and 110 million in 1600 CE. §REF§ 《明太祖實錄 卷140》 §REF§ §REF§ (Weatherhead East Asian Institute 2008) Weatherhead East Asian Institute. 2008. 'Issues and Trends in China's Demographic History'. Asia for Educators. Columbia University. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-17T15:39:57.138564Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 544, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“THE QOTAKALLI PERIOD in the Cuzco region covers an era between the rise of the first chiefly societies and invasion of the area by the Wari Empire. Unfortunately, this is one of the least-understood time periods of the Cuzco region.” §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 47) Bauer, Brian S. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NFKCCC8X\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NFKCCC8X </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 78, "name": "PeCuzE1", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 499, "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate I", "new_name": "pe_cuzco_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Early Intermediate Period of Andean history lasted from 400 BCE to 550 CE, §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 12) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ and is known for the emergence of regional forms of political organization, such as the Moche in northern Peru (100-800 CE) and the Nazca in the Rio Grande de Nazca and Ica regions (100 BC-800 CE). In the Cuzco Valley, this period saw the development of numerous chiefdoms of varying sizes. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 54) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ One of these polities is known as Qotakalli (200-500 CE), §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 47) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ and may have controlled an area of up to 1000 square kilometres. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 59) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ <br>The period also saw a change in settlement patterns. Wimpillay no longer dominated the valley, as several new large sites grew in the west of the basin, with a possible large settlement under the modern city of Cusco. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 52) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ New settlements grew along the lower valley slopes below 3500 metres above sea level, which archaeologist Brian Bauer interprets as evidence for population growth and a possible shift in the valley's economy towards maize production. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 53) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ <br>In the Lucre Basin further to the east, the Chanapata culture still flourished in the form of small farming villages until 600 CE: Chanapata ceramics were found in the lowest strata during excavations at the site of Choquepukio. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 88) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ These polities may have centred around the sites of Choquepukio and Mama Qolda. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 52) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ Furthermore, the presence of Pucara ceramics and early Tiwanaku-related wares indicate possible contacts between the Cuzco Valley polities and the Titicaca cultural sphere, perhaps through trade, but not through political assimilation. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 88) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 143) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Although the population of the region during this period is currently impossible to determine, it is worth mentioning that 16 Qotakalli sites with an area of between 1 and 5 hectares have been surveyed, as well as 35 sites between 0.25 and 1 hectares, §REF§ (Covey 2006, 60) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ suggesting a possible two-tiered settlement pattern. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 51) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ The density of sites near modern Cuzco may indicate various groups of elite households interacting with each other within the Qotakalli chiefdom. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 52) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 30, "name": "Cuzco", "subregion": "Andes", "longitude": "-72.067772000000", "latitude": "-13.477380000000", "capital_city": "Cuzco", "nga_code": "PE", "fao_country": "Peru", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 32, "name": "Andes", "subregions_list": "From Ecuador to Chile", "mac_region": { "id": 6, "name": "South America and Caribbean" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 543, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“THE QOTAKALLI PERIOD in the Cuzco region covers an era between the rise of the first chiefly societies and invasion of the area by the Wari Empire. Unfortunately, this is one of the least-understood time periods of the Cuzco region.” §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 47) Bauer, Brian S. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NFKCCC8X\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NFKCCC8X </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 79, "name": "PeCuzE2", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 649, "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate II", "new_name": "pe_cuzco_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Early Intermediate Period of Andean history lasted from 400 BCE to 550 CE, §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 12) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ and is known for the emergence of regional forms of political organization, such as the Moche in northern Peru (100‒800 CE) and the Nazca in the Rio Grande de Nazca and Ica regions (100 BC‒800 CE). In the Cuzco Valley, this period saw the development of numerous chiefdoms of varying sizes. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 54) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ One of these polities is known as Qotakalli (200‒500 CE), §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 47) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ and may have controlled an area of up to 1000 square kilometres. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 59) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ <br>The period also saw a change in settlement patterns. Wimpillay no longer dominated the valley, as several new large sites grew in the west of the basin, with a possible large settlement under the modern city of Cusco. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 52) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ New settlements grew along the lower valley slopes below 3500 metres above sea level, which archaeologist Brian Bauer interprets as evidence for population growth and a possible shift in the valley's economy towards maize production. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 53) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ <br>In the Lucre Basin further to the east, the Chanapata culture still flourished in the form of small farming villages until 600 CE: Chanapata ceramics were found in the lowest strata during excavations at the site of Choquepukio. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 88) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ These polities may have centred around the sites of Choquepukio and Mama Qolda. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 52) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ Furthermore, the presence of Pucara ceramics and early Tiwanaku-related wares indicate possible contacts between the Cuzco Valley polities and the Titicaca cultural sphere, perhaps through trade, but not through political assimilation. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 88) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 143) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Although the population of the region during this period is currently impossible to determine, it is worth mentioning that 16 Qotakalli sites with an area of between 1 and 5 hectares have been surveyed, as well as 35 sites between 0.25 and 1 hectares, §REF§ (Covey 2006, 60) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ suggesting a possible two-tiered settlement pattern. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 51) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ The density of sites near modern Cuzco may indicate various groups of elite households interacting with each other within the Qotakalli chiefdom. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 52) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ <br>The chronological boundaries between this polity and the previous one are not clear-cut. Brian Bauer designates 200-600 CE as the Qotakalli period, §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 47) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ while Alan Covey states that Qotakalli appeared around 400 CE. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 59) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ Moreover, Covey refers to a settlement shift after 400 CE in the Sacred Valley (within our NGA, natural geographical area): before 400 CE, he says there was a small chiefdom with a three-tiered settlement hierarchy, and another one in the Cuzco Basin. After 400 CE the large villages were abandoned and new ones built at about 3500 metres above sea level. In the Sacred Valley, the abandoned sites represent 70% of the sample. Qotakalli pottery has been found at the new sites. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 60-63) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ Depending on the chronology used, we could postulate either continuity or cultural assimilation of the previous polity in the Qotakalli circa 400 CE.<br>What can be noted with more confidence, however, is that the 6th and 7th centuries CE saw the incursion of Wari colonies into the Cuzco valley, interacting with smaller local polities in the south and west of the valley. §REF§ (Bauer and Covey 2002, 850) B. S. Bauer and A. R. Covey. 2002. 'Processes of State Formation in the Inca Heartland (Cuzco, Peru)'. <i>American Anthropologist</i> 104 (3): 846-64. §REF§ Araway ceramics may have been one of the markers of elite status, exchanged between local chiefs and Wari representatives. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 77) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ There seems to be strong cultural continuity between the Qotakalli sites and the sites where Araway pottery is present: although Wari colonists were present in the valley, their numbers remained low and evidence suggests that they did not exert political or military dominance over other groups. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 74) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 30, "name": "Cuzco", "subregion": "Andes", "longitude": "-72.067772000000", "latitude": "-13.477380000000", "capital_city": "Cuzco", "nga_code": "PE", "fao_country": "Peru", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 32, "name": "Andes", "subregions_list": "From Ecuador to Chile", "mac_region": { "id": 6, "name": "South America and Caribbean" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 522, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Situated at the pivot of these lines of commercial and religious communication, Sinnar developed into a large a prosperous metropolis. As the missionary and traveller Theodore Krump described it in 1701: ‘In all Africa, as far as the Moorish lands are concerned, Sinnar is close to being the greatest trading city. Caravans are continually arriving from Cairo, Dongola, Nubia, from across the Red Sea, from India, Ethiopia, Darfur, Bornu, the Fezzan and other kingdoms. This is a free city and men of any nationality or faith may live in it without a single hinderance.” §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 103) Oliver, Roland and Atmore, Anthony. 2001. Medieval Africa 1250 – 1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DB9BAFGM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DB9BAFGM </b></a> §REF§ NB the below quote suggests that both Islam and Nubian religion were tolerated. “The Funj Sultan was obliged to plough a field with his own hand at the beginning of his reign, probably in order to insure fertility. The common Funj throne name, Badi (farmer) reflected this royal rite. At the conclusion of the investiture ceremony the new king performed ritual ablutions, and he took part in an annual festival that entailed the burning of ceremonial fires and animal sacrifice. When the king appeared in public he was praised as ‘the most-mighty, the most just, the richest, and a hundred titles of honor of a similar sort.’ For his part, the king used boast formulas such as ‘I am a bull, the son of a bull and will die or conquer!’ While it was believed in Sinnar that the Funj had become Muslim at the founding of the sultanate, much of the above clearly bears little resemblance to Islamic concepts. Brun-Rollet expressed the situation tactfully: ‘In Sinnar and the neighboring regions various beliefs, usages and festivals [exist], of which one cannot explain the origin but by proceeding to before the establishment of modern religions.’” §REF§ (Spaulding 1973, 28) Spaulding, Jay. 1973. ‘The Government of Sinnar.’ The International Journal of African Historical Studies. Vol 6:1. Pp 19-35. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KKJC836D\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KKJC836D </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 649, "name": "et_funj_sultanate", "start_year": 1504, "end_year": 1820, "long_name": "Funj Sultanate", "new_name": "et_funj_sultanate", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_EAST", "general_description": "The Funj Sultanate was a kingdom in modern-day Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea. The Funj Sultanate was founded in 1504 after its first ruler, Amara Dunquas defeated the Christian Alwa Kingdom. The capital of the Funj Sultanate was at Sinnar in Sudan. Islam spread early in the kingdom as it was originally accepted by the nobles and sultans. As an important trading kingdom, Islam grew due to Muslim immigrants and scholars that arrived in the sultanate. These Islamic scholars and holy men created Quranic schools, established local saint veneration cults, and established Maliki law. As Islam became the kingdom’s state religion, Arabic became the official language of the sultanate. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 431) Lapidus, Ira M. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QW9XHCIW/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QW9XHCIW/collection</a> §REF§ <br>The Funj Sultanate depended heavily on caravan trade and the gold trade. The apex of the sultanate was during the reign of Badi II from 1644 to 1680. In the last half of the eighteenth century, the kingdom became fragmented as different nobles and elites competed for power. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 621) Lapidus, Ira M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SRW6XCHP/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SRW6XCHP/collection</a> §REF§ The Funj Sultanate formally ended with Egyptian occupation in 1820-21. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 431) Lapidus, Ira M. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QW9XHCIW/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QW9XHCIW/collection</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 2, "name": "East Africa", "subregions_list": "Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 612, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Scholars know very little about the Kanva dynasty or its rulers. [...] In any event, the short-lived Kanva dynasty left little mark on the history of India.” (Middleton, J. 2015: 485)", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 792, "name": "in_kanva_dyn", "start_year": -75, "end_year": -30, "long_name": "Magadha - Kanva Dynasty", "new_name": "in_kanva_dyn", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "JR: Adding \"Magadha\" to the name for clarity. Changed dates to 75-30 BCE (previously 75-300 CE): this was a short-lived dynasty based in Magadha in the last century BCE", "created_date": "2023-12-07T16:15:55.657882Z", "modified_date": "2024-06-06T09:17:00.288584Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 39, "name": "North India", "subregions_list": "North India", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 20, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }