Soc Vio Freq Rel Grp List
A viewset for viewing and editing Social Violence Against Religious Groups.
GET /api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?ordering=-description&page=2
{ "count": 222, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?ordering=-description&page=3", "previous": "https://seshatdata.com/api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?ordering=-description", "results": [ { "id": 600, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“With the term “unenforced” we acknowledge that both communities engaged, on different occasions and with varying intensity, in displays of cultural propaganda and forms of resistance by designating the “other” as “barbarian” or “mleccha.”127 Nevertheless, we find no evidence for religious conflict and coercion instigated between Indo-Greeks and Buddhists. Instead we identified topoi of cultural conversion by voluntary association and through an internalized assimilation of foreign elements facilitated by trade across multiple zones of contact: trading routes, cities, courts, markets, caravans, public buildings, and so forth.” §REF§ Halkias, G. T. (2013). When the Greeks Converted the Buddha: Asymmetrical Transfer of Knowledge in Indo-Greek Cultures. In P. Wick & V. Rabens (Eds.), Religion and Trade: Religious Formation, Transformation and Cross-Cultural Exchange between East and West (Vol. 5, pp. 65–115). Leiden, 108–109. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JGDBID5Q\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JGDBID5Q </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "PkIndGr", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10, "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "new_name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Indo-Greek 'kingdom' was created after the Greco-Bactrians invaded northern India from 180 BCE. It consisted of a number of dynastic polities that ruled from regional capitals and formed a single entity only to the extent their rulers were able to collaborate. More than 30 kings are known, who were often in conflict with each other. §REF§ (Bernard 2012, 42-52) Paul Bernard. 'Ai Khanum: A Greek Colony in Post-Alexandrian Central Asia, or How to Be Greek in an Oriental Milieu.' in Elisabetta Valtz Fino. Joan Aruz. ed. 2012. <i>Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations Along the Silk Road.</i> The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York. §REF§ <br>Bopearachchi suggests the period was founded by two kings, Demetrius I and Agathocles, who ruled around 185 BCE, but Jakobsson (2009) believes that a later king known as Menander was \"instrumental in the creation of the era.\" §REF§ (Jakobsson 2009) Jakobsson, Jens. Who Founded the Indo-Greek Era of 186/5 B.C.E.? Dec 2009. The Classical Quarterly. New Series. Vol. 59. No.2. pp. 505-510. §REF§ The lack of consistent or reliable sources from either Western or Chinese sources means that much of what we know is speculative and reliant on numismatic evidence. §REF§ (Guillaume 1986, 1-16) Olivier Guillaume. 1986. \"An Analysis of the Modes of Reconstruction of the Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek History.\" Studies in History 2, no. 1 §REF§ <br>It is likely the rulers, who simultaneously produced their own coinage, ruled different parts of the Indo-Greek polity and employed their own administrators. §REF§ (Jakobsson 2009. 505-510) Jens Jakobsson. Who Founded the Indo-Greek Era of 186/5 B.C.E.? Dec 2009. The Classical Quarterly. New Series. Vol. 59. No.2. §REF§ Governance of the Indo-Greek region was for the most part through personal kingship and organization extended only to the limits of a particular king's power. §REF§ (Jakobsson 2009, 505-510) Jens Jakobsson, Jens. Who Founded the Indo-Greek Era of 186/5 B.C.E.? Dec 2009. The Classical Quarterly. New Series. Vol. 59. No.2. §REF§ <br>After 145 BCE, Successive nomadic invasions by Scythians and other nomads isolated the Indo-Greeks from the wider Hellenic world. By the beginning of the first century CE, the Greco-Bactrian state was extinguished as an independent entity. §REF§ (Bernard 2012, 42-52) Paul Bernard. 'Ai Khanum: A Greek Colony in Post-Alexandrian Central Asia, or How to Be Greek in an Oriental Milieu.' in Elisabetta Valtz Fino. Joan Aruz. ed. 2012. <i>Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations Along the Silk Road.</i> The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York. §REF§ <br>Of the legacy of the civilization, the Greek alphabet survived until the Islamic conquest as the script of the Bactrian language, and the conversion of a Indo-Greek King to Buddhism became a part of the zeitgeist of the Indian collective historical memory. §REF§ (Bernard 2012, 42-52) Paul Bernard. 'Ai Khanum: A Greek Colony in Post-Alexandrian Central Asia, or How to Be Greek in an Oriental Milieu.' in Elisabetta Valtz Fino. Joan Aruz. ed. 2012. <i>Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations Along the Silk Road.</i> The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-11-20T10:59:20.104782Z", "home_nga": { "id": 13, "name": "Kachi Plain", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "67.628836000000", "latitude": "29.377664000000", "capital_city": "Mehrgarh", "nga_code": "PK", "fao_country": "Pakistan", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 38, "name": "Pakistan", "subregions_list": "Pakistan", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 458, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty categorises the Gupta period as one in which partisan Brahmans and their supporters began to vent bitter hostility towards the various non-Brahmanical groups, particularly the Buddhists and Jains, who for so long had received lavish patronage from Indian rulers, especially (this apparently was part of the problem) rulers from dynasties of barbarian origin. [...] Still, hard evidence of religious persecution in these ancient times is scattered and fragmentary. In the absence of more solid evidence, the view has gained ground that pre-modern India had a cultural unity that precluded communal conflict, but we think that this picture is not sufficiently nuanced. Doniger’s perception that there was widespread persecution of non-Brahmans during the first millennium may fairly represent the situation that arose at certain times, but we cannot be at all sure how widespread the phenomenon was, or at what times it was most marked.”§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 388, "name": "InGupta", "start_year": 320, "end_year": 550, "long_name": "Gupta Empire", "new_name": "in_gupta_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Gupta polity ran from 320-514 CE, with its peak considered to be around 400 CE during the reign of Skanda-Gupta. §REF§ (Keay 2010, 146) Keay, John. 2010. India: A History. New Updated Edition. London: HarperPress. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X</a>. §REF§ <br>At its largest, the Gupta empire spanned up to 900,000 square kilometres across north and south India, which it had full and direct control over, as well as southern India indirectly. The cities of Ujjain and Pataliputra seem to have both served as capital cities. While the total population is not known, the largest settlement, Pataliputra, is thought to have had a population of 150,000 people in 360 CE. §REF§ (Agrawal 1989) §REF§ , Kulke and Rothermund (2004) §REF§ (Kulke and Rothermund 2004) §REF§ and Stein (2010) §REF§ (Stein 2010) §REF§ .<br><br/>Trade flourished under the Gupta Empire both internally across India as well as through overseas trading routes with China and the Roman Empire. Among their exports were pearls, gems, diamonds and precious metals. §REF§ (Keay 2010, 146) Keay, John. 2010. India: A History. New Updated Edition. London: HarperPress. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X</a>. §REF§ <br>Common religions practiced in this polity included Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism from both the Vaisnava and Saiva Traditions, though none claimed to be the exclusive or ‘correct’ religion. §REF§ (Bisschop 2010, 478) Bisschop, Peter. 2010. “Saivism in the Gupta-Vakataka Age.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 20 (4):477-88.Seshat URL: .<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/M52PA8IW/itemKey/BHH5W2PV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/M52PA8IW/itemKey/BHH5W2PV</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-17T11:10:49.230416Z", "home_nga": { "id": 14, "name": "Middle Ganga", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "82.700000000000", "latitude": "25.750000000000", "capital_city": "Jaunpur", "nga_code": "UTPR", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 65, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 450, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Though the basic tenets of Buddhism were contrary to Brahmanism, the rulers, as well as laymen were able to accept, or at least respect, both faiths without rancour of confrontation.” §REF§ (Gadkari 1996: 141) Gadkari, Jayant. (1996). Society and Religion: From Rugveda to Puranas. India: Popular Prakashan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ADKUMS3Z\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ADKUMS3Z </b></a> §REF§ NB the following quote does not mention violence directly, but it acknowledges that laymen were supporting the Buddhism via donations. “A perusal of gifts to Buddhist monks and institutions mentioned in the Luders ' List leaves the impression that in Bharhut and Sanchi most gifts were made by artisans and a class of merchants call gandhikas from which the title gandhi is derived.” §REF§ (Sharma 1966: 84) Sharma, R. S. (1966). SATAVAHANA POLITY. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 28, 81–93. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/V7KV3P74\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: V7KV3P74 </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 89, "name": "InSataL", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 203, "long_name": "Satavahana Empire", "new_name": "in_satavahana_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Satavahanas were the first Deccan-based dynasty to rule over an empire encompassing both southern and northern India, stretching from the Deccan Plateau in the south to Madhya Pradesh in the north, and touching both the western and eastern coasts. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 25-26) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ According to the most widely accepted hypothesis, based on numismatic, archaeological and textual evidence, this polity existed between the beginning of the 1st century BCE and the end of the 2nd century CE, though many scholars are reluctant to assign absolute dates to specific kings. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2001, 166) Carla Sinopoli. 2001. 'On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty', in <i>Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History</i>, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla Sinopoli, 155-78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Notable rulers include Gautamiputra Satakarani, Vasistiputra, Pulamavi, and Yajnasri. Under their governance, Indian commerce with the Western world intensified and there was a florescence of the arts, particularly in the field of Buddhist iconography. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 25-26) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ However, records are scanty when it comes to the empire's middle century, which suggests that the Satavahana polity went through two phases of power and prosperity, with an intervening period of regionalization, and perhaps even collapse. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2001, 166) Carla Sinopoli. 2001. 'On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty', in <i>Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History</i>, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla Sinopoli, 155-78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Satavahana polity was ruled by an emperor. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 25) Suryanatha Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ He was aided, at court, by a number of officials, including attendants and advisors, the <i>mahasenapati</i> (army commander), the superintendent of stores, the treasurer, officials tasked with drafting and registering his documents, and officials tasked with supervising feudal lords. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 25) Suryanatha Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 32-33) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ The provinces were governed by feudal lords who were related by blood to the royal family, by lords who struck coins in their own name (perhaps indicating some degree of autonomy from the Satavahanas themselves), and by military commanders in charge of outlying centres. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 25) Suryanatha Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ The fact that the empire likely suffered some sort of collapse in its middle period suggests that it may have been overly dependent on the abilities of individual rulers rather than a well-designed administrative structure. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2001, 166) Carla Sinopoli. 2001. 'On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty', in <i>Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History</i>, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla Sinopoli, 155-78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for this period could be found in the specialist literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 36, "name": "Central India", "subregions_list": "Deccan, etc", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 453, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“This Illinois hospitality impressed the French immediately. Allouez marveled in 1666 that \"it is said that whenever [the Illinois] meet a stranger, they give a cry of joy, caress him, and show him every possible evidence of affection.\" Dablon noted that the Illinois \"showed us such politeness, caresses, and evidences of affection as will scarcely be credited.\" When Marquette and Jolliet arrived at the Peoria village in 1673, they were welcomed by the Illinois elders, who led them to their cabins, laid them down on mats, and massaged their legs and feet. After a steam bath, the French ate from the best food the villagers could offer in a cabin the Illinois provided. The Illinois treated all strangers to the village in this same way. Once they provided for their guest's comfort, the Illinois would politely ask the strangers of news from other villages, maintaining a strict silence when the guests, or anyone else, spoke. When they knew a guest lied, they ignored it. At the end of a visit, they always gave a gift including deer and beaver pelts for a guest's journey home. In fact, the Illinois granted a guest's any request.” §REF§ (Bilodeau, 364) Bilodeau, Christopher. 2001. ‘”They Honor Our Lord among Themselves in Their Own Way”: Colonial Christianity and the Illinois Indians’. American Indian Quarterly. Vol. 25. No. 3. Pp. 352-377. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AFD5FRWH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AFD5FRWH </b></a>§REF§”At times the Illinois emphasized the material aspect of religious practice so much that they threatened the lives of missionaries. The Illinois rose in anger most frequently over baptism. As is well known, many American Indians blamed missionaries for the deaths of recently baptized Indians. At first, the Illinois believed that the ritual of baptism gave the body eternal life, as Allouez wrote of the Miami in his journal of 1672-73. When sick Illinois died soon after they were baptized, however, many Illinois began to believe that baptism caused their deaths. When an Illinois child became ill, as often happened, the missionaries insisted on baptizing the child, believing that the soul of a non- baptized child would suffer eternally in hell. The missionaries also insisted on baptizing dying non-Christian adults, just in time, they believed, to save their souls. So, more often than not, missionaries baptized Illinois Indians who then died. It is not surprising, then, that the Illinois connected baptism with death. Many Illinois treated missionaries as if they were evil, and even at times threatened to kill them after a baptized Indian died. §REF§ (Bilodeau, 367) Bilodeau, Christopher. 2001. ‘”They Honor Our Lord among Themselves in Their Own Way”: Colonial Christianity and the Illinois Indians’. American Indian Quarterly. Vol. 25. No. 3. Pp. 352-377. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AFD5FRWH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AFD5FRWH </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 30, "name": "USIllin", "start_year": 1640, "end_year": 1717, "long_name": "Early Illinois Confederation", "new_name": "us_early_illinois_confederation", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Our early Illinois period refers to the span of time from 1640 CE, the approximate date of the first European written reports of the Illinois (also known as Inoca, Illiniwek, Illini) Indians, §REF§ (Illinois State Museum 2000) Illinois State Museum. 2000. \"The Illinois: History.\" MuseumLink Illinois. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/il_hi.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/il_hi.html</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/PT8275IS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/PT8275IS</a>. §REF§ to 1717, when the Illinois Country was incorporated into the French colony of Louisiane. §REF§ (Walthall and Emerson 1992, 9-10) Walthall, John A., and Thomas E. Emerson. 1992. \"Indians and French in the Midcontinent.\" In Calumet and Fleur-De-Lys: French and Indian Interaction in the Midcontinent, edited by John A. Walthall and Thomas E. Emerson, 1-13. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2VQKWPMN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2VQKWPMN</a>. §REF§ From the 1660s and 1670s onwards, France claimed title to the Illinois Country (<i>Pays des Illinois</i>) as part of its North American colonial possessions, but French presence in the region before 1717 was generally limited to small numbers of missionaries and traders. §REF§ (Walthall and Emerson 1992, 8-9) Walthall, John A., and Thomas E. Emerson. 1992. \"Indians and French in the Midcontinent.\" In Calumet and Fleur-De-Lys: French and Indian Interaction in the Midcontinent, edited by John A. Walthall and Thomas E. Emerson, 1-13. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2VQKWPMN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2VQKWPMN</a>. §REF§ In this early contact period, the Illinois were theoretically under the 'protection' of the French crown, but in practice maintained their autonomy. §REF§ (Havard 2013, 117) Havard, Gilles. 2013. \"'Protection' and 'Unequal Alliance': The French Conception of Sovereignty over Indians in New France.\" In French and Indians in the Heart of North America, 1630-1815, edited by Robert Englebert and Guillaume Teasdale, 113-37. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IDG32ZN9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IDG32ZN9</a>. §REF§ The region referred to as the Illinois Country in both modern and older sources was located to the east of the Middle Mississippi river, bounded to the north by Lake Michigan, to the south by the Ohio river, and to the west by the Wabash. §REF§ (Walthall and Emerson 1991, 5) Walthall, John A., and Thomas E. Emerson. 1991. \"French Colonial Archaeology.\" In French Colonial Archaeology: The Illinois Country and the Western Great Lakes, edited by John A. Walthall, 78-84. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XQWPU4VH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XQWPU4VH</a>. §REF§ However, it is likely that the Illinois-speaking groups encountered by Europeans in the 17th century had arrived in this area relatively recently, possibly migrating westwards from the Lake Erie basin. §REF§ (Hall 1997, 173) Hall, Robert L. 1997. An Archaeology of the Soul: North American Indian Belief and Ritual. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8KH357GV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8KH357GV</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Despite the use of the term 'Illinois Confederacy' to describe Illinois society, there is no indication in the written sources of intertribal political organizations such as those found among Iroquoian groups to the northeast in the same period. §REF§ (Callender 1978, 673) Callender, C. 1978. \"Illinois.\" In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 15: Northeast, edited by B. Trigger. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TD2AIF67\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TD2AIF67</a>. §REF§ Political leadership was provided by both peace chiefs - who played important diplomatic roles, such as conducting <i>calumet</i> (peace pipe) ceremonies for visitors, but had relatively little formal authority - and war chiefs, who organized raids on other settlements. §REF§ (Callender 1978, 676) Callender, C. 1978. \"Illinois.\" In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 15: Northeast, edited by B. Trigger. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TD2AIF67\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TD2AIF67</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Illinois State Museum 2000) Illinois State Museum. 2000. \"The Illinois Indians: Society: Leaders.\" MuseumLink Illinois. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/soc_leaders.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/soc_leaders.html</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/REVSHE82\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/REVSHE82</a>. §REF§ <br>In the post-contact period (specifically in the late 17th century), the Illinois formed large villages close to French forts and trading posts, most notably the Grand Village of the Kaskaskia. §REF§ (Morrissey 2015, 681-82) Morrissey, Robert Michael. 2015. \"The Power of the Ecotone: Bison, Slavery, and the Rise and Fall of the Grand Village of the Kaskaskia.\" Journal of American History 102 (3): 667-92. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZDDVHJMV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZDDVHJMV</a>. §REF§ It has traditionally been assumed that these large settlements, which included Illinois speakers from various subgroups as well as Chickasaws, Shawnees and others, functioned almost as refugee centres as the Illinois fled attacks from the Iroquois to the east and clustered together in the wake of disease and depopulation. §REF§ (Morrissey 2015, 681-82) Morrissey, Robert Michael. 2015. \"The Power of the Ecotone: Bison, Slavery, and the Rise and Fall of the Grand Village of the Kaskaskia.\" Journal of American History 102 (3): 667-92. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZDDVHJMV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZDDVHJMV</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Nichols 1998, 36-37) Nichols, Roger L. 1998. Indians in the United States and Canada: A Comparative History. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8H2XHS76\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8H2XHS76</a>. §REF§ Historian Robert Morrissey has offered an alternative interpretation, arguing that the large Illinois villages represented an aggressive 'bid for power' based on bison hunting and slave raiding and strategically positioned between the woodlands to the east and the grasslands of the west. §REF§ (Morrissey 2015, 668-69) Morrissey, Robert Michael. 2015. \"The Power of the Ecotone: Bison, Slavery, and the Rise and Fall of the Grand Village of the Kaskaskia.\" Journal of American History 102 (3): 667-92. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZDDVHJMV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZDDVHJMV</a>. §REF§ Nevertheless, what is not in doubt is that the Illinois suffered drastic population losses in the post-contact period, falling from around 12,000 people in 1680 to just 1,900 by 1763. §REF§ (Hauser 2015, 299) Hauser, Raymond E. 2015. \"Illinois.\" In Colonial Wars of North America, 1512-1763: An Encyclopedia, edited by Alan Gallay, 299-300. Abingdon: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QS4Z9FFR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QS4Z9FFR</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 28, "name": "Cahokia", "subregion": "Mississippi Basin", "longitude": "-90.062035000000", "latitude": "38.658938000000", "capital_city": "St. Louis", "nga_code": "USMO", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 24, "name": "Mississippi Basin", "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 466, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“This Hindu influence in Sri Lanka was nurtured by groups of Brahmans, whose numbers increased during these centuries. They enjoyed the patronage of the rulers (they enjoyed special favour with Par•kramab•hu VI) and the support of the people. ” §REF§ (De Silva 1981: 194) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4R6DQVHZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4R6DQVHZ </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 634, "name": "sl_jaffa_k", "start_year": 1310, "end_year": 1591, "long_name": "Jaffna", "new_name": "sl_jaffa_k", "polity_tag": "POL_SA_SI", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 467, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“This Hindu influence in Sri Lanka was nurtured by groups of Brahmans, whose numbers increased during these centuries. They enjoyed the patronage of the rulers (they enjoyed special favour with Par•kramab•hu VI) and the support of the people. ” §REF§ (De Silva 1981: 194) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4R6DQVHZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4R6DQVHZ </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 628, "name": "sl_dambadeniya", "start_year": 1232, "end_year": 1293, "long_name": "Dambadaneiya", "new_name": "sl_dambadeniya", "polity_tag": "POL_SA_SI", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 548, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“There are no source which allow us to say anything with certainty about the identity of the citizens and their view of outsiders. No self-designation of land, people or language has yet been found. The cultural and ethnic complexity may speak for a rather open and tolerant situation, and it is also remarkable that the kingdoms in the surviving record did not share any particular identity or political interest and culture.” §REF§ (Thuesen 2002, 54) Thuesen, Ingolf. 2002. ‘The Neo-Hittite City-States.’ In A Comparative Study of Six City-State Cultures: An Investigation. Edited by Mogens Herman Hansen. Copenhagen: Copenhagen Polis Centre. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IBWFAEM4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: IBWFAEM4 </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 165, "name": "TrNHitt", "start_year": -1180, "end_year": -900, "long_name": "Neo-Hittite Kingdoms", "new_name": "tr_neo_hittite_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "After Hattusa was destroyed by fire ending the New Kingdom period of the Hittites §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 9) T Bryce. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ elements of the Hittite civilization lingered in peripheral areas of the former kingdom §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 9) T Bryce. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ which included the Konya Plain region. The primary region of the Syro-Hittite kingdoms was however in Syria. The small states lasted for almost 500 years and were culturally and politically prominent from c900 BCE until the last of them fell to the Assyrian king Sargon II between 717-708 BCE. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 9) T Bryce. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ The cultural links between these kingdoms and the Late Bronze Age Hittite Empire can be seen in the iconography and architecture. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 47) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>In the 1180-900 BCE post-Empire period the region reorganized into city-states. §REF§ (Thuesen 2002, 43) I Thuesen. 2002. \"The Neo-Hittite City-States\" in Mogens, H H ed. A Comparative Study of Six City-state Cultures: An Investigation, Volume 27. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. §REF§ The earliest written records suggest there was no kind of federation, \"each was entirely independent from the others, each had its own autonomous ruler.\" §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 52) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ The label 'Neo-Hittite' applies to 15 states spread through south-eastern Anatolia and northern Syria. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 2) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ Those present in the area around or on the Konya Plain were the following: Pisidia; Pamphylia; Lycaonia; Tabal; Cilicia (Hilakku and Que). §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 32) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>Although there was some continuity with the preceding period major cultural changes occurred in the Neo-Hittite era. According to Bryce (2012) \"Hittite cuneiform disappeared entirely. There is not the slightest trace of it in any of the Iron Age successor-kingdoms of the Hittites. One might reasonably suppose that along with the disappearance of the written language, Nesite also disappeared as a spoken one.\" §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 16) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ Although we do not have any historical records associated with this epoch, historians have speculated that the society of this era used the Hieroglyphic Luwian language. §REF§ (Popko 1999, 93-111) M Popko. 1999. Ludy i języki starożytnej Anatolii. Wydawnictwo Akademickie Dialog. Warszawa. pp.93-111 §REF§ §REF§ (Van de Mieroop 2008, 207) M Van de Mieroop. 2008. Historia starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu ok. 3000-323 p.n.e. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Kraków. §REF§ I. Yakibovich has suggested that the core area of Luwian population was located in central Anatolia, in the region of the Konya Plain. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 17) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>Many Neo-Hittite rulers took the titles \"Great King\" and \"Hero\" and it is likely an administrative centre existed in the central town. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 80) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ At the better known Neo-Hittite site of Carchemish, in western Anatolia, a central bureaucracy is known which had scribes, clerks and other officials §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 54) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ ; although \"Carchemish and probably Malatya apparently continued from their Late Bronze Age predecessors with little or no interruption\" §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 63) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ which might not be the case for other lesser-known polities of the Neo-Hittite states.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-12-19T09:00:40.512130Z", "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 603, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“The two communities seemed to be different to each other in religious thought. The Muslims believed in one God – Allah – whose last messenger was the Prophet. The Hindus believing in unity in diversity believed in many gods and practised image worship. After some initial tension and destruction of some temples, they came to some mutual adjustment helped by the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate. §REF§ (Ray, 2019) Ray, Aniruddha. 2019. The Sultanate of Delhi (1206 – 1526): Polity, Economy, Society and Culture. Milton Park: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2S5I44XU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2S5I44XU </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 135, "name": "InDelh*", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1526, "long_name": "Delhi Sultanate", "new_name": "in_delhi_sultanate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 CE) was created when Muhammad Qutb-ud-din declared his independence from the Ghurids, which in turn followed the defeat of the last Hindu ruler of Delhi in 1192 CE. §REF§ (Wolpert 1997, 110, 212) S A Wolpert. 1997. A new history of India. Oxford: Oxford University Press §REF§ Qutb-ud-din's successor, his son, had his rule as Sultan of Delhi legitimized by a representative of the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad. §REF§ (Kulke 1990, 157) H Kulke D Rothermund. 1990. A History of India (Revised, Updated Edition). §REF§ The Sultanate lasted 320 years which spanned five successive Turko-Afghan dynasties (Mamluk Dynasty, Khalji Dynasty, Tughlaq Dynasty, Sayyid Dynasty and Lodi Dynasty) that spread Islam and the Persian language of administration in northern India. §REF§ (Wolpert 1997, 110, 212) S A Wolpert. 1997. A new history of India. Oxford: Oxford University Press §REF§ §REF§ (Habib 2005, 37-44) I Habib. 2005. The Delhi Sultanate in The state and society in medieval India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>The Delhi Sultanate had a highly-complex central administration but was not a centralized state. In the provinces, much of its power was devolved to local Hindu rulers and landholders. §REF§ (Habib 2005, 37-44) I Habib. 2005. The Delhi Sultanate in The state and society in medieval India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Only the area around Delhi was ruled directly by the Sultan, and here units of land given to military commanders, in return for the right to collect revenue. §REF§ (Habib 2005, 37-44) I Habib. 2005. The Delhi Sultanate in The state and society in medieval India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. §REF§ According to Habib (2005) any centralisation that existed only lasted for a few decades before the polity become much more loosely organised. §REF§ (Habib 2005, 37-44) I Habib. 2005. The Delhi Sultanate in The state and society in medieval India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>Ala al-Din (r.1296-1316 CE) reorganized the revenue and administrative systems in order to support a large standing army. A successful army was crucial for maintaining the personal authority of the Delhi Sultan in India and for expanding, or defending, territory. §REF§ (Asher 2006, 39-40) Catherine B Asher. Cynthia Talbot. 2006. India before Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ By the fourteenth century, the vizier of the Sultan became more powerful. Whilst earlier his duties were confined only to the military, they were extended to revenue affairs. The vizier was responsible for fiscal administration, income and expenditure, appointment of officials, and the collection of taxes. §REF§ (Ahmed 2011, 98) Farooqui Salma Ahmed. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India. §REF§ <br>Hindus joined the ranks of the administrative class §REF§ (Habib 2005, 37-44) I Habib. 2005. The Delhi Sultanate in The state and society in medieval India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. §REF§ and \"many elements of the Rajput political system, with or without changes, were incorporated into the Turkish administration in India.\" §REF§ (Ahmed 2011, 96) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India. §REF§ Under the later dynasties, revenue collection began to be less efficient, and conflicts between elite power-holders emerged. The Sultanate ended when Ibrahim was defeated by Babur, the Mongol ruler, in 1526 CE. §REF§ Habib, I. (2005). The Delhi Sultanate in The state and society in medieval India. Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp.37-44. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 13, "name": "Kachi Plain", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "67.628836000000", "latitude": "29.377664000000", "capital_city": "Mehrgarh", "nga_code": "PK", "fao_country": "Pakistan", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 513, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“The time of the so-called “1st (Ogiso) Dynasty” probably the early 10th first half of 12th centuries, is one of the most mysterious pages of the Benin history. The sources on this period are not abundant. Furthermore, it is obvious that archaeological and ethnohistorical evidence, rather scarce, should be supplemented by an analysis of different records of the oral historical tradition while it is well known that this kind of source is not very much reliable. However, on the other hand, it is generally recognized that it is unreasonable to discredit it completely. Though Benin students have confirmed this conclusion and demonstrated some possibilities of verifying and correcting its evidence, a reconstruction of the early Benin history will inevitably contain many hypothetical suggestions and not so many firm conclusions.” §REF§ (Bondarenko and Roese 2001: 185-186) Bondarenko, Dmitri M. and Peter M. Roese, 2001. “Ancient Benin: Where did the First Monarchs Come from?”, Asian and African Studies, 10 (1), pp.185-198. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4DQ36NB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: P4DQ36NB </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 660, "name": "ni_igodomingodo", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1450, "long_name": "Igodomingodo", "new_name": "ni_igodomingodo", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 576, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“The legal implications of fengshui, which was often invoked in property disputes across China, explain the reason. Ethnographic accounts reveal that non-Muslim populations in the northwest at times attacked Islamic shrines on the suspicion that they hurt the fengshui of an area.” §REF§ (Brown 2019,460) Brown, Tristan G. 2019. ‘A Mountain of Saints and Sages: Muslims in the Landscape of Popular Religion in Late Imperial China.’ T'Oung Pao. Vol 105 (3-4): 437-491. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JFZXH7PI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JFZXH7PI </b></a> §REF§ “During the mid-nineteenth century, several Muslim-led rebellions broke out in multi-ethnic areas of southern and western China. Muslims had lived in northwest and southwest China since the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), but in many areas they still formed distinct religious communities. In 1853, a conflict between two different ethnic groups, the Han and the Hui, broke out in the southwestern province of Yunnan. In the ensuing turmoil, existing religious and ethnic tensions between the Muslim Hui and non-Muslim ethnic minorities were brought to the fore. This sparked a multi-ethnic uprising that engulfed the entire province, which eventually developed into an anti-Manchu insurgency. Alternatively referred to as the Panthay Rebellion (1855–1873), after the Burmese term for Muslim Chinese, or the Du Wenxiu 杜文秀 Rebellion, after the anti-Manchu leader of the movement, the revolt resulted in the loss of up to a million lives. In the northwestern provinces of Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia, and Xinjiang, the Dungan 東干 revolt (1862–1877), an uprising of Muslim Hui and other Muslim ethnic groups, led to an additional tens of millions of deaths.” §REF§ (Xiong and Hammond 2019, 309) Xiong, Victor Cunrui and Kenneth J. Hammond. 2019. Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History. London and New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9RC9JSM7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9RC9JSM7 </b></a> §REF§ “In fact, many articles from newspapers published during the late nineteenth century also suggested that the secret societies were the main trouble maker against missionaries. The Gelaohui’s anti-Christian activities started around 1870 and reached its peak after 1890. Most anti-Christian incidents that took place in Hubei province before the 1870s were not directly related to secret societies. In the Qing government’s records, anti-Christian incidents involving secret societies could only be found after the 1870s. The situation was gradually aggravated after 1870. Besides placards and rumours, anti-Christian incidents also started to emerge frequently. After October 1898, the Gelaohui began to attack Christians in all parts of the south-west Hubei vicariate. The persecution had started in Sichuan province and later spread to Hunan and Hubei. In these three provinces anti-Christian incidents took place one after another. According to the church records, the Gelaohui divided themselves into many groups to attack the churches in different places. Each group had as many as one thousand well-equipped soldiers. The two most serious anti-Christian incidents that occurred in Enshi were priest Victorin Delbrouck’s murder in December 1898 and the massacre of Bishop Théotime Verhaeghen in 1904. Evidences show that both were committed by the Gelaohui.” §REF§ (Xiang, Hongyan 2013) Xiang, VHongyan. 2013. “Catholicism and the Gelaohui in late Qing China”, New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies 15, 1 (June 2013): 93-113. New Zealand: New Zealand Asian Studies Society. Seshat URL: §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "CnQingL", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912, "long_name": "Late Qing", "new_name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Qing Dynasty (or Empire of the Great Qing, Great Qing, Manchu Dynasty, Manchus, Jin, Jurchens, Ch'ing Dynasty) was China's last imperial dynasty. The founders of the Qing were descendants of Jurchen Jin rulers. The dynasty was founded by Nurhaci and then led by his son Huang Taiji, but did not become an imperial Chinese dynasty until after Huang Taiji's death. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ In 1644 CE, Qing forces captured the Ming capital at Beijing from rebels and held a funeral for the last Ming emperor to symbolize Qing inheritance of the Mandate of Heaven. §REF§ (San 2014, 338) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ <br>The Qing faced conflict with rebels and loyalist Ming forces for the next two decades. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ Ming generals who surrendered were given power over large territories in southern China in exchange for loyalty to the Qing. In 1673 CE, leaders from three major southern feudatories led by Wu Sangui rebelled against Emperor Kangxi when he tried to reduce their power. §REF§ (San 2014, 385) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ The Revolt of the Three Feudatories, as this episode is known, lasted eight years.<br>We divide the Qing Dynasty into two, an Early period (1644-1796 CE) and a Late period (1796-1912 CE). The division is marked by a period of internal turmoil as well as foreign incursions into its territory and economic sphere. In the Early Qing period, China had been prosperous under Kangxi and Qing rule, but by the time of the Opium Wars in the Late Qing, Western technology and industry had surpassed that of China. §REF§ (Mao 2005, 8) Haijin Mao. 2005. <i>The Qing Empire and the Opium War: The Collapse of the Heavenly Dynasty</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 gave rise to the Republic of China.<br>From 1850 to 1864 CE, China was racked by the fourteen-year Taiping Rebellion. The rebellion directly caused 30 million deaths and destroyed many regions in the middle and lower Yangtze. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 198) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ In 1853, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace established a capital in Nanjing, but the rebellion was defeated by armies led by local governors in 1864. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ A number of serious uprisings followed the Taiping Rebellion, including the Nian Rebellion (1853-1868 CE). §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>At the same time, the Qing emperors were facing economic problems due to the actions of foreign powers. In the 1830s, British merchants began illegally importing opium to China, where high demand for the drug led to a large trade imbalance. China's economy was drained of silver §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 157) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ and the value of copper coins depreciated. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The First Opium War broke out in 1839 CE when a Chinese commissioner attempted to block opium trade in Guangzhou harbour. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The Second Opium War of 1858 CE was a series of military actions by the British and French against the Qing. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The resulting treaties allowed foreign powers to establish concessions in China, abolished taxes for French and British merchants, and forced the Qing to pay large amounts of silver in damages. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The 19th century saw increasingly frequent intrusions by foreign powers. Foreign merchants exploited their tax-free status, to the detriment of local Chinese producers. China was forced to cede much of its territory in Vietnam, Burma and elsewhere. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ By the end of the 19th century, a range of foreign powers including Great Britain, Japan, Germany, and France claimed colonial territories in China. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ A peasant uprising known as the Boxer Rebellion targeted foreigners in 1900 CE.<br>In 1860, the Qing rulers were exiled outside the Great Wall when foreign invaders burned down the Summer Palace. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 201) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The court was restored by the regent Empress Dowager Cixi and Prince Gong in what is known as the Tongzhi restoration. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 201) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ However, the dynasty was finally overthrown in the Revolution of 1911 and the Republic of China was founded.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Late Qing maintained a traditional imperial-style Chinese government headed by an emperor and central bureaucracy. Provincial government consisted of governors who controlled a hierarchical system of officials, prefects, county chiefs, county magistrates, and clerks. §REF§ (Zhang 2011, 63) Wei-Bin Zhang. 2011. <i>The Rise and Fall of China's Last Dynasty: The Deepening of the Chinese Servility</i>. Hauppage, NY: Nova Science Publishers. §REF§ The Qing were deeply opposed to modernization: the scholars Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao had to flee after attempting to reform government practices in 1898 CE. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ Rebellions in the 19th century led to the rise of local governors and military commanders, who acted as warlords to control their local regions. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The period between the mid-18th and mid-19th centuries was one of extremely rapid population growth in Late Qing China, and by 1851 the population had reached 431.9 million people. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 3-4) Judith Banister. 1987. <i>China's Changing Population</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§ However, a number of censuses after that date could not be completed due to the rebellions.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-17T15:41:02.301719Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }