Soc Vio Freq Rel Grp List
A viewset for viewing and editing Social Violence Against Religious Groups.
GET /api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?ordering=-coded_value&page=2
{ "count": 222, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?ordering=-coded_value&page=3", "previous": "https://seshatdata.com/api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?ordering=-coded_value", "results": [ { "id": 457, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.\"§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-11T15:19:12.221140Z", "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 418, "name": "in_gurjara_pratihara_dyn", "start_year": 730, "end_year": 1030, "long_name": "Gurjar-Pratihara Dynasty", "new_name": "in_gurjara_pratihara_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The polity of Gurjar ran from c. 730 to 1030 CE with its territory spanning approximately 1 million square kilometres; roughly corresponding to a slightly smaller area than the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar combined. §REF§ (Keay 2000: 198) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X</a>. §REF§ <br>There has been no information could be found in the sources consulted regarding the polity's overall population, but the imperial capital of Kanauj is thought to have had a population of 80,000 people at its peak in 810 - 950 CE.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "JR: Changed start year from 810 to 730 CE -- now matches the date range for ruler transitions.", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-11T12:26:04.458158Z", "home_nga": { "id": 14, "name": "Middle Ganga", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "82.700000000000", "latitude": "25.750000000000", "capital_city": "Jaunpur", "nga_code": "UTPR", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 57, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 442, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.\"§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 91, "name": "InKadam", "start_year": 345, "end_year": 550, "long_name": "Kadamba Empire", "new_name": "in_kadamba_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kadamba dynasty ruled over a region that largely falls within the boundaries of the modern-day Indian states of Karnataka and Maharashtra. §REF§ (Moraes [1931] 1990, 47) George Moraes. 1990. <i>The Kadamba Kula</i>. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. §REF§ An absolute start date could not be found in the specialist literature. However, much is known about this polity's monarchs. Most notably, Kakushtavarma, widely regarded as the greatest Kadamba king, concluded marriage alliances with prominent ruling families (thus extending Kadamba influence over much of the subcontinent) and created an internal police force to ensure the safe movement of people from one part of the empire to another. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 47) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ After Kakushtavarma, the empire was temporarily split among his heirs, each division with its own capital: Halsi for the north and west, Triparvata for the south, and Uchchangi for the east. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 49) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ The empire was partly reunited a generation later under Ravivarma. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 48) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ However, the polity disintegrated rapidly under Harivarma, and much of its territory was seized by the Chalukyas of Badami in the 540s CE. §REF§ (Kadambi 2007, 178) Hemanth Kadambi. 2007. 'Negotiated Pasts and Memorialized Present in Ancient India', in <i>Negotiating the Past in the Past: Identity, Memory, and Landscape in Archaeological Research</i>, edited by Norman Yoffee, 155-82. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In imitation of the Satavahanas, the Kadambas referred to their leader as <i>dharmamaharaja</i> §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 38) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ The dharmamaharaja was assisted at court by a royal council and the crown prince, and in the provinces he was represented by viceroys and governors. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 38) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for this period could be found in the specialist literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 36, "name": "Central India", "subregions_list": "Deccan, etc", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 449, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.\"§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§ NB, however: “religious animosities among the followers of Saivism, Vaishnavism and Jainism, also seem to have greatly weakened the unity of the Chalukya empire.” §REF§ (Raychaudhuri 1948: 283) Raychaudhuri Golapachandra, 1948. The history of the western chalukyas (political and administrative) University of London, School of Oriental and African Studies (United Kingdom). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NU7WQ5CD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NU7WQ5CD </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 94, "name": "InChaKl", "start_year": 973, "end_year": 1189, "long_name": "Chalukyas of Kalyani", "new_name": "in_kalyani_chalukya_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Chalukyas of Kalyani ruled over a territory roughly corresponding to the modern-day Indian states of Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Telangana, as well as the Andhra Pradesh districts of Kurnool and Anantapur. §REF§ (Kamath 1980) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ Taila II re-established Chalukya rule over the Deccan by inflicting several military defeats on the Rashtrakutas and sacking their capital in 973 CE. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 91) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ Then, in the 12th century, the Chalukyas lost their empire twice: first, briefly, to the Kalachuris, and then, permanently, in 1191, to the Hoysalas and the Yadavas. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 96) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ This polity probably reached its peak during the reign of Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126 CE): during this relatively peaceful time, the capital flourished, as did scholarship, and the Chalukyas' territories and influence expanded. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 92-94) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>At the head of this polity was an emperor, aided at court by his <i>yuvaraja</i> (crown prince) and ministers, and represented in the provinces by feudal subordinates. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 91-96) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ According to some sources, the Chalukyan administration was insufficiently centralized, and allowed too much freedom and autonomy to provincial rulers. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 116) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for the polity as a whole could be found in the literature. However, the capital, Kalyani, is estimated to have been home to between 50,000 and 125,000 inhabitants in the 12th century CE. §REF§ Christopher Chase-Dunn 2001, personal communication. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "JR: changing the end date from 1191 to 1189 to avoid overlap with the succeeding polity, the Yadava Dynasty (aka Seuna Dynasty).", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-20T13:14:23.504316Z", "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 36, "name": "Central India", "subregions_list": "Deccan, etc", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 538, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“At Aden, business interests trumped any and all potential communal divisions. While ethnic and religious communities managed their own affairs internally, when matters crossed these boundaries the city authorities adjudicated a solution. Although there was undoubtedly competition for business, and while commercial affairs were largely constructed within bounded communities, some cross-cultural partnerships also formed. A notable case involved the Jewish nakhuda Mahruz and his Indian counterpart Tinbu.” §REF§ (Alpers 2014, 54-55) Alpers, Edward A. 2014. The Indian Ocean in World History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QH5QTKXV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QH5QTKXV </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 368, "name": "YeRasul", "start_year": 1229, "end_year": 1453, "long_name": "Rasulid Dynasty", "new_name": "ye_resulid_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Yemeni Coastal Plain or Plateau refers to the north-western region of modern Yemen, lying between the Red Sea and the Yemeni Mountains. During the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries CE, the region—along with the eastern portion of southern Arabia—was ruled by the Rasūlid Dynasty. Prior to this date, Yemen had formed part of the Ayyūbid Sultanate, centered in Egypt. When the last Ayyūbid ruler of Yemen, al-Mas‘ūd Yūsuf, was summoned to govern Syria in the early thirteenth century, de facto control passed to his trusted second-in-command, the Rasūlid Nūr al-Dīn ‘Umar. §REF§ (Stookey 1978, 106–07) Robert W. Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3</a>. §REF§ The Rasūlids, a Sunnī Muslim dynasty, presided over a prosperous and largely stable period in Yemeni history, developing a centralized bureaucracy, patronizing scholarly and religious institutions, and controlling important ports of trade. §REF§ (Varisco 1993, 13–15, 21–22) Varisco, Daniel Martin. “Texts and Pretexts: The Unity of the Rasulid State under Al-Malik Al-Muzaffar.” Revue Du Monde Musulman et de La Méditerranée 67 (1993): 13–24. doi: 10.3406/remmm.1993.1584. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TV9TVUZ5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TV9TVUZ5</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Stookey 1978, 114) Robert W. Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3</a>. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for the entire polity could be found in the sources consulted, but Aden, the capital, likely had a population of c. 50,000 under the Rasūlids. §REF§ (Bidwell 1983, 14) Bidwell, Robin Leonard. 1983. The Two Yemens. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WR5RMRMQ/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WR5RMRMQ/</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 12, "name": "Yemeni Coastal Plain", "subregion": "Arabia", "longitude": "43.315739000000", "latitude": "14.850891000000", "capital_city": "Sanaa", "nga_code": "YE", "fao_country": "Yemen", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 44, "name": "Arabia", "subregions_list": "Arabian Peninsula", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 473, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "‘‘‘ The literature consulted arguably implies the absence of significant religious communities outside of the Cwezi-kubandwa religious complex, which in turn suggests the absence of religiously motivated societal tensions. “The Cwezi-kubandwa religious complex covered most of Great Lakes Africa by the nineteenth century, being found in modern-day Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, north-west Tanzania and eastern Congo, a region united by closely related Bantu languages as well as traditions of kingship and other cultural similarities.”§REF§(Doyle 2007: 559) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9EXDF5UP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9EXDF5UP </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 687, "name": "Early Niynginya", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1897, "long_name": "Kingdom of Nyinginya", "new_name": "Early Niynginya", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_EAST", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-13T09:26:46.862473Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 2, "name": "East Africa", "subregions_list": "Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 46, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 443, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.\"§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§ NB the following quote refers to the Gupta-Vakataka period in general. “Different religions and sects lived in peace and harmony, and the standard of average education and culture was higher than in any other period of Indian history.” §REF§ (Majumbar and Altekar 1946, 12) Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra. Altekar, Anant Sadashiv. (1949) 1986. Vakataka - Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8X6M5DJZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8X6M5DJZ </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 90, "name": "InVakat", "start_year": 255, "end_year": 550, "long_name": "Vakataka Kingdom", "new_name": "in_vakataka_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Vakataka dynasty ruled over the central Indian region of Vidarbha and surrounding areas between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE. This polity was founded by King Vindhyasakti in around 255 CE, reached its zenith around 510, and had been replaced by the Chalukya polity by the mid-6th century. §REF§ (Majumbar and Altekar 1946, 44, 123) Ramesh Chandra Majumdar and Anant Sadashiv Altekar. 1986. <i>Vakataka - Gupta Age circa 200-550 A.D.</i> Benares: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. §REF§ The Vakataka period was characterized by the establishment of a centrally ruling authority, agrarian expansion, and the revival of Hinduism, aided by an increase in royal land grants assigned for religious purposes and the construction of new temples. §REF§ (Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. 'State Formation Process in the Vidarbha during the Vakataka Period'. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-62. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Vakataka polity was ruled by a king. §REF§ (Sawant 2009, 145) Reshma Sawant. 2008. 'State Formation Process in the Vidarbha during the Vakataka Period'. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-62. §REF§ Inscriptions suggest that he was aided at court by ministers and administrative personnel, including revenue officers, and in the provinces by a hierarchy of provincial and local authorities. §REF§ (Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. 'State Formation Process in the Vidarbha during the Vakataka Period'. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-62. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for this period could be found in the specialist literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 36, "name": "Central India", "subregions_list": "Deccan, etc", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 627, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "\"During this early period, the populace at large does not appear as a major instigating force in anti-Jewish activity. This was, to be sure, an epoch of substantial violence, and the Jews felt this lawlessness on occasion. […] More striking, however, is the frequency with which governmental oppressions such as those of 992 and 1007 - 1012 were accompanied by outbursts of popular antipathy. This is attested by the Hebrew chronicle for 992 and by a number of the sources for 1007 - 1012. The breakdown of official protection allowed the overt expression of that popular hatred normally suppressed by the authorities.\"§REF§(Chazan 2019: 14-15) Chazan, R. 2019. Medieval Jewry in Northern France. Johns Hopkins University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/jewry/titleCreatorYear/items/TRF47P7C/item-list§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-02-27T14:30:26.998615Z", "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 457, "name": "FrCaptE", "start_year": 987, "end_year": 1150, "long_name": "Proto-French Kingdom", "new_name": "fr_capetian_k_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Capetian period in France began with the accession of Hugh Capet to the Frankish throne in 987 CE. In the early period (987-1150 CE), the area under the control of the Capetian monarchs was relatively restricted in comparison to the late period (1150-1328 CE), which saw a massive expansion in territory and increasing urbanization. §REF§ (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 111) Turchin, Peter, and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Capetian monarchs ruled their kingdom via decree. Louis VI (r. 1108-1137 CE) was recognized as the legitimate ruler by his vassals and, after the early 12th century, the great lords of France generally submitted to Capetian authority. §REF§ (Bouchard 1995, 313-17) Bouchard, Constance B. 1995. “Capetian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 312-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNRCJVG\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNRCJVG</a>. §REF§ However, the dynasty had less power outside the region of Paris and the Counts of Bois and Troyes were arguably more powerful than the king in some respects. The Capetians drew their legitimacy from their stronger links to the Catholic church. §REF§ (Bouchard 1995, 313-17) Bouchard, Constance B. 1995. “Capetian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 312-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNRCJVG\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNRCJVG</a>. §REF§ <br>Before Philip II (r. 1180-1223 CE), government was very simple and closely linked to the king's court, which was still itinerant, moving wherever the king went. §REF§ (Clark and Henneman 1995, 1317) Clark, William W., and John Bell Henneman, Jr. 1995. “Paris.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1314-30. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HS8644XK\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HS8644XK</a>. §REF§ At the core of the French king's government were a few major officials with household titles (chancellor, seneschal, butler, chamberlain and constable). §REF§ (Bradbury 2013, 249) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E</a>. §REF§ From the 12th century onwards, these positions were the preserve of the aristocracy. §REF§ (Bradbury 2013, 249) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Pegues 1995, 1333) Pegues, Franklin J. 1995. “Parlement de Paris.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1332-33. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HHFUSQER\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HHFUSQER</a>. §REF§ The clergy of the Church provided a pool of 'educated, literature and numerate subjects' and were a vital resource for the government and administration of the Capetian Kingdom. §REF§ (Bradbury 2013, 248-49) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E</a>. §REF§ <br>Innovations in agriculture resulted in population increases during this period, especially in northern and western France, but demographic expansion would not begin in earnest until the later Capetian era. §REF§ (Percy, Jr. 1995, 1416) Percy, Jr., William A. 1995. “Population and Demography.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1415-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM</a>. §REF§ From the 11th to the 14th century CE, the French population almost quadrupled from about 4 to 15 million. §REF§ (Percy, Jr. 1995, 1416) Percy, Jr., William A. 1995. “Population and Demography.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1415-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 634, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion is recognised as being polytheistic, accommodating a broad range of local gods into an increasingly structured framework. Sources speculate that this allowed for a degree of syncretism and tolerance. As the latter quotes indicate, during the Ur Dynasty this attitude became part of a more aggressive centralisation of power. “Mesopotamian religion was primarily local in its character. Only through institutional efforts (such as the foundation of palaces and temples) and theological systematization did religion gain regional and supra-regional features. Notwithstanding the local character of religion in Mesopotamia, archaeological and textual evidence attests to a religious system that was intended to foster cultural cohesion.” §REF§ (Pongratz-Leisten, 2013, 33). Pongratz-Leisten, B. (2013). Mesopotamia. In B. Spaeth (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions (Cambridge Companions to Religion, pp. 33-54). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZEG8QMQQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZEG8QMQQ </b></a> §REF§ “The new ruler [Ur-Nammu] projected a view of himself as a religious man, upholding and respecting the old traditions and, at the same time, leaving nobody in doubt that his power and the new order were absolute, without alternative. The new and the old stood side by side, but the new did not threaten the old. Ur-Nammu insured this through his clever placement of new cultic monuments and by according due respect to the gods of each local tradition. Even where local gods were worshipped in new temples, the effort put into building them demonstrated Ur-Nammu’s high regard for them. The imperial building program thus contained two messages: the new was both powerful and obviously accepted by the local gods. At the same time, it served as an invitation to local populations to identify with it, as well as an admonition to be aware that there was no alternative.” §REF§ (Heinz, 2012, 708-9). Heinz, Marlies (2012). The Ur III, Old Babylonian, and Kassite Empires. In Potts, D. T. (Ed.), A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, pp.706-721). John Wiley & Sons. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HIN8NS88\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HIN8NS88 </b></a> §REF§ “With the rise of Ur, cities lost their traditional autonomy […] The deified kings of Ur consequently replaced the city-gods as ultimate heads of the land […] The substitution of local rulers with functionaries appointed by Ur could not have been welcomed without opposition and conflict. Nevertheless, apart from the victory of Ur over the ensi of Lagash, there are no indications of difficulties in the evidence, which tends to describe the situation a posteriori. The kings of Ur actually preferred to avoid mentioning the battles taking place against the Sumerian city-states. They simply celebrated their role as champions of a united and peaceful Mesopotamia.” §REF§ (Liverani, 2013, 157). Liverani, Mario. The Ancient near East : History, Society and Economy, Taylor & Francis Group, 2013. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7DRZQS5Q\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7DRZQS5Q </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 477, "name": "IqUrIII", "start_year": -2112, "end_year": -2004, "long_name": "Ur - Dynasty III", "new_name": "iq_ur_dyn_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The founder of the Third Dynasty of Ur was Ur-Nammu who probably came from Uruk, however he was a military commander (<i>šagina</i>) of Ur, and later its independent ruler who conducted victorious fights with the Gutians and took by force other lands of Sumer and consolidated the whole Akkad and Sumer. Moreover, he also conquered Elam and even reached Susa. His political power was related not only to his conquest, but mainly to his cultural and legislative activities. He was a builder of few great temples and was a lawgiver of one of the oldest 'code' called <i>Code of Ur-Nammu</i>. §REF§ Stępień 2009, 11-12 §REF§ His son - Shulgi continued father's politics and he \"reorganized system and territorial administrative structure, but also much enlarged its lands and increased international prestige, turning it into a dominant power of the region.\" §REF§ Stępień 2009, 16 §REF§ He seized among other Simurrum, Lullubum, Kimaš, Hurti, Karahar, Šašrum, Harši. He used the political marriages and various alliances as well to cement his state (e. g. his daughters married the ruler of Marhaši and the ensi of Anshan). Two sons of Shulgi reigned 9 years each - Amar-Sin(Amar-Suen)and Shu-Sin(Su-Suen). Amar-Suen led few victorious campaigns against Urbilum, Šašrum and Hurrians. Su-Suen fight against Amorites, however his strategy was more defensive than offensive. The last king from this dynasty -Ibbi-Sin was less successful in fights with Amorites, Gutians and Elamites. After he was betrayed by the governor of Isin named Ishbi- Irra, the Ur became much weaker. Eventually the city of Ur was captured and looted in 2010 and Ibbi-Sin lost his throne and was transported to Susa. Generally speaking, the Ur III period is perceived as a flowering time when many significant changes took place, especially on the field of literature, culture and architecture. However, many important transformation concerning administration, army as well as the position of the ruler were happened. Ur is described often in the literature as \"the centralized bureaucratic state\" §REF§ Ur 2014, 256 §REF§ with many civil servants and elaborated administration structures. According to Jason Ur: \"The kings of Ur created centralized temple and above all royal administrative systems, and attempted to resuscitate a Sumerian identity. §REF§ Ur 2013, 143 §REF§ The state of Ur consisted of three main zones: core, periphery and vassal territories. The core encompasses lands of Sumer and Akkad and it includes 18 provinces. The peripheral areas are defined as the land which were attached by Shulgi (in a consequence of his military activity) such as eastern Iraq, the western provinces of Kurdistan, Luristan, Khuzestan. The third zone, so called \"sphere of influence\" included vassal states. §REF§ Stępień 2009, 55-60 §REF§ Besides its military achievements, the marital alliances were often used tool to establish or broaden the power of Ur's kings.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 8, "name": "Southern Mesopotamia", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "44.420000000000", "latitude": "32.470000000000", "capital_city": "Babylon (Hillah)", "nga_code": "IQ", "fao_country": "Iraq", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 62, "name": "Mesopotamia", "subregions_list": "Iraq, Kuwait", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 570, "year_from": 1368, "year_to": 1606, "description": "“The Chinese people's resistance also began from the temples and may have had a very targeted character. In Shaozhou, some \"robbers\" attacked Matteo Ricci's church, but \"they retreated with nothing to show for it to a nearby temple, where they very likely came from\"; in despair, \"they sacrificed to idols in a temple for their own cause and then jointly swore to expel Europeans from Shaozhou.\" Later, when the people of Shaozhou could no longer tolerate the smell emanating from the burning of idols by the faithful Christians, they submitted a petition to the government. This was precisely during the period when the hardline representative Nicholas Longobardi was preaching in Shaozhou. He made great progress in converting people and in destroying temples and idols, which aroused strong dissatisfaction among the local clergy and ordinary people. Just as Shaozhou was hit by a drought, people blamed the burning of the Bodhisattva statue by the Christians for the lack of rainfall, and the two sides engaged in a fierce dispute, with some even plotting to kill Longobardi. In Nanchang, faced with the threat to Chinese cultural traditions posed by missionary activities, \"scholars brought charges against the Europeans, saying that they prohibited people from revering their ancestral idols, did not leave any heirs, and caused temples to become desolate, disturbing the city and countryside.\" Many ordinary people even went to the homes of the Christians to persuade them not to abandon their own gods and ancestors. As a result, when a fire broke out in one of the Christian's homes, no one in the neighborhood went to put it out, reasoning that they had abandoned their own gods and therefore deserved to be punished by the fire. (中国民众的反击也是从寺庙出发进行的，也许具有极鲜明的针对性。在韶州，一些“强盗”袭击了利玛窦的教堂，最后“他们一无所得地撤退到附近的寺庙里，他们很可能就是从那里来的”；而且“他们在绝望中，为自己的事情在一座庙里向偶像献祭，然后他们共同发誓要把欧洲人驱逐出韶州”。后来韶州人对教徒“焚毁偶像，由此发出的气味飘进寺里”再也难以忍受，便通过正常渠道向政府递交诉状。这时正是强硬派代表龙华民（Nicholas Longobardi）在韶州传教时期，他在吸收教徒、废庙毁像方面进展很大，引起当地僧俗的强烈不满。正好韶州遭遇旱灾，人们向神祈雨不灵，便归咎于教徒之焚烧观音像，双方发生激烈争执，甚至有人密谋杀掉龙华民。在南昌，迫于传教士活动对中国文化传统的危害，“诸士人遂诉于官，谓欧罗巴人禁人敬奉祖先遗像，不留后嗣，使寺庙荒寂，城乡骚扰”。很多老百姓还跑到教徒们的家里劝他们不要抛弃本国的神癨；结果有一位教徒家里着了火，四邻也不去救，理由就是他们抛弃了自己的神，所以应该让火去惩罚他们。)”§REF§ Zhao, Shiyu. (2002). Carnival and Daily Life: Temple Fairs and Folk Society since the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Beijing: Sanlian Shudian Press. §REF§“The Nanjing anti-Christian cases of 1616 and 1621, as well as the Fujian case, were all instigated by high-ranking officials, whereas the Nanchang case of 1607, the Nanjing case of 1608, and the Fu'an case of 1608 were initiated by the folk people. The Fu'an case relied on the power of kinship, while the Nanchang case appealed to the \"public opinion of scholars,\" representing two typical modes of popular anti-Christian movements. (從教案發動者來看，1616 年南京教案、1621 年南京教案和福建教案均由高級官員發動，1607 年南昌教案、1608 年南京教案、 福安教案則起自民間。福安教案依託於宗族力量，南昌教案則訴諸 “士人公議”，分別代表了民間排教的兩種典型模式。) ”§REF§ Huang, Yun. \"The Nanchang Anti-Christian Case of 1607: Its Charges, Theories and Background.\" Journal for the Study of Christian Culture, No. 28, 2012, pp. 130-156. Beijing: Institute for the Study of Christian Culture. §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "CnMing*", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644, "long_name": "Great Ming", "new_name": "cn_ming_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "After 300 years of rule by outsiders, the Ming Dynasty, lasting from the fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries CE, restored Chinese rule to the region. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ The dynasty was founded by a peasant rebel general, Zhu Yuanzhang, later known as Emperor Taizu or the Hongwu Emperor. §REF§ (Brook 1998, 8) Timothy Brook. 1998. <i>The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Taizu destroyed the Yuan capital in Beijing, forced the Mongols to retreat to Mongolia, and founded the Ming capital in Nanjing in 1368 CE. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 191) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The period saw a resurgence of Chinese intellectualism and economic activity, §REF§ (Mote, Twitchett and Fairbank 1988, 1) Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank. 1988 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644</i>, edited by Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, 1-10. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ but Ming emperors often struggled to control their massive empire and they do not tend to number among the Chinese emperors considered 'great' by historians. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 216) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Ming expanded their territory to the southwest during their rule. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 190) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, they never expanded into Mongolia - conflict with the Mongols in the north led the Ming emperors instead to carry out restorations works on the Great Wall. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The Dynasty came to an end in 1644 CE, when the region was re-captured by descendants of Jin Dynasty's Jurchen rulers from Manchuria known as Qing.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Ming emperors were not consistent in their style of rule. While Emperor Taizu ruled as an autocrat, some Ming emperors left the governance of the nation in the hands of officials and eunuchs. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 216) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The emperor presided over the central government in concert with various levels of chief ministers and imperial officials, and the central government structure was replicated on a smaller scale at the provincial level. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ Officials were recruited through an examination system. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The period was marked by increasing openness to non-Confucian ideas and an increase in literacy among the lower levels of society. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Intellectual culture flourished among the elites §REF§ (Mote, Twitchett and Fairbank 1988, 1) Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank. 1988 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644</i>, edited by Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, 1-10. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and the publishing industry expanded greatly in the Lower Yangtze region. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 190) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Novels, including <i>The Romance of the Three Kingdoms</i> and <i>Water Margin</i>, and the play <i>Peony Pavilion</i> were written in the Ming period. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The rapid growth of the international trading system along with foreign desire for Chinese porcelain and silk led to large increases in foreign trade and an influx of silver into the Ming economy. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In the later Ming period, trade conflicts impacted China's foreign silver supply, leading to massive deflation. The Ming government, near bankruptcy, could not fund military campaigns against the rebellion spreading through the nation. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 215) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Ming population was between 60 million and 66.5 million in 1400 CE and 90 million and 110 million in 1600 CE. §REF§ 《明太祖實錄 卷140》 §REF§ §REF§ (Weatherhead East Asian Institute 2008) Weatherhead East Asian Institute. 2008. 'Issues and Trends in China's Demographic History'. Asia for Educators. Columbia University. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-17T15:39:57.138564Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 452, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "The following quote suggest a form of coexistence during this period. “From the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries on, a crucial factor in the propagation of Islam in West Africa was the extension and expansion of long-distance networks of trade literally across the Sahel and south into the forest zones. Muslim traders on these routes, widely known as Wangara or Dyula, were accompanied or soon followed by itinerant teachers of Islam who largely adhered to what came to be known as the Suwarian tradition, named for al-Hajj Salim Suware (dated to the thirteenth century by some historians, to the fifteenth by others). This tradition eschewed jihad except when Muslims were forced to defend themselves; avoided active proselytizing on the grounds that it is God, not human beings, who decides when people should convert; and favored the coexistence of Muslims and ‘unbelievers’ as long as the latter did not prevent the Muslims from living according to the precepts of Islam. These teachers focused on Islamic education in the Muslim communities along the traders’ diasporas. This tajdid (‘renewal’) activity – a central aspect of the history of Islam in the Sahel – enabled those communities to maintain their Islamic identity and to reproduce it generation after generation. Thanks to this incessant effort, Muslim communities could multiply themselves over long distances and live in non-Muslim cultural environments without losing their distinctiveness.” §REF§ (De Moraes Farias 2020: 133) De Moraes Farias, Paulo F. 2020. ‘Islam in the West African Sahel’. In Sahel: Art and Empires on the Shores of the Sahara. Edited by A. La Gamma. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HPASJ4RZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HPASJ4RZ </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "MlMali*", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410, "long_name": "Mali Empire", "new_name": "ml_mali_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "After the gradual decline of the Ghana Empire, the power vacuum left in the Sudanese region was filled with several smaller successor states, including the Sosso Kingdom. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 33) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ In the early 13th century CE, several Malinke chiefdoms from the Upper Niger region united against the Sosso and slowly aggregated into what would become the Mali Empire. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 31) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ This polity, also known as the Mandingo Empire, §REF§ (Diop 1987, 93) Cheikh Anta Diop. 1987. <i>Precolonial Black Africa</i>, translated by Harold Salemson. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. §REF§ was the largest of the West African empires, and flourished from the early 13th to the late 14th/early 15th century, at which point it started to decline. §REF§ (MacDonald et al. 2011, 52) K. C. MacDonald, S. Camara, S. Canós, N. Gestrich, and D. Keita. 2011. 'Sorotomo: A Forgotten Malian Capital?' <i>Archaeology International</i> 13: 52-64. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://doi.org/10.5334/ai.1315\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://doi.org/10.5334/ai.1315</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 592) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The apogee of the Mali Empire corresponds to the reign of Musa I of the Keita dynasty, the <i>mansa</i> (emperor) who reigned over 24 cities and their surrounding territories from 1312 to 1337. §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 45) David C. Conrad. 2010. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ His empire extended from the Atlantic to Gao and the Niger Inland Delta, and from the southern Sahara to the tropical forest belt. §REF§ (Diop 1987, 93) Cheikh Anta Diop. 1987. <i>Precolonial Black Africa</i>, translated by Harold Salemson. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. §REF§ Musa I is also famed for his patronage of Islam in Mali and for his lavish distribution of gold when he set off on a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1325. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 148) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The kings of the Keita dynasty sat at the apex of a confederation incorporating smaller kingdoms such as Ghana and Mema. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 158-60) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ At its height, the empire comprised 12 provinces made up of smaller, village-centred clan units. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 161) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The mansa (emperor) was thus a 'chief of chiefs', assuming the mantle of a supreme patriarch, and he could dispense justice personally. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 160) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ He received advice from the <i>griot</i>, chosen from the Kouyate clan, who was also his spokesman and the tutor of princes. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 160) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ <br>The aristocracy formed around the Malinke warrior class, §REF§ (Niane 1975, 36) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. <i>Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle</i>. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ including an elite corps of cavalry. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 162) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The empire maintained a strong army, with garrisons stationed in the main towns. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 164) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The merchant class, known as Dyula or Wangara, §REF§ (Davidson 1998, 42) Basil Davidson. 1998. <i>West Africa Before the Colonial Era: A History to 1850</i>. Routledge: London. §REF§ formed settlements at the margins of the forest regions, such Kankan in modern-day Guinea, Bobo Dioulasso in modern Ivory Coast, and Begho in modern Ghana. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 64) Roland Anthony Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The cities of Mali were cosmopolitan, inhabited by people of every occupation and from every province of the empire, §REF§ (Niane 1984, 145) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ and prospering from their participation in Trans-Saharan trade networks and the export of gold, ivory, salt and slaves. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 42) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ Their characteristic mudbrick architecture, known as <i>banco</i>, can still be admired today. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 150) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ This distinctive architectural style is one of many signs of Mali's legacy in the region, as its language, laws and customs spread through West Africa. In the 15th century, however, a long period of gradual decline began. Timbuktu was captured by the Tuareg in 1433, §REF§ (Ly-Tall 1984, 174) Madina Ly-Tall. 1984. 'The decline of the Mali empire' in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 172-86. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ and a few decades of internal political struggles made it difficult for the emperors to maintain control over such a large region, leading to the contraction of the empire's territory. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 46) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ <br>The empire was densely populated, with a reported 400 towns in the region and a compact net of villages near the trading city of Jenné. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 156) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ When the Andalusi diplomat Leo Africanus visited Niani in the 16th century, he described a thriving city of 'six thousand hearths'. §REF§ (Davidson 1998, 43) Basil Davidson. 1998. <i>West Africa Before the Colonial Era: A History to 1850</i>. Routledge: London. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 6, "name": "Niger Inland Delta", "subregion": "Sahel", "longitude": "-3.041703000000", "latitude": "16.717549000000", "capital_city": "Timbuctu", "nga_code": "ML", "fao_country": "Mali", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }