Soc Vio Freq Rel Grp List
A viewset for viewing and editing Social Violence Against Religious Groups.
GET /api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?format=api&ordering=tag
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Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QH5QTKXV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QH5QTKXV </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 368, "name": "YeRasul", "start_year": 1229, "end_year": 1453, "long_name": "Rasulid Dynasty", "new_name": "ye_resulid_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Yemeni Coastal Plain or Plateau refers to the north-western region of modern Yemen, lying between the Red Sea and the Yemeni Mountains. During the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries CE, the region—along with the eastern portion of southern Arabia—was ruled by the Rasūlid Dynasty. Prior to this date, Yemen had formed part of the Ayyūbid Sultanate, centered in Egypt. When the last Ayyūbid ruler of Yemen, al-Mas‘ūd Yūsuf, was summoned to govern Syria in the early thirteenth century, de facto control passed to his trusted second-in-command, the Rasūlid Nūr al-Dīn ‘Umar. §REF§ (Stookey 1978, 106–07) Robert W. Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3</a>. §REF§ The Rasūlids, a Sunnī Muslim dynasty, presided over a prosperous and largely stable period in Yemeni history, developing a centralized bureaucracy, patronizing scholarly and religious institutions, and controlling important ports of trade. §REF§ (Varisco 1993, 13–15, 21–22) Varisco, Daniel Martin. “Texts and Pretexts: The Unity of the Rasulid State under Al-Malik Al-Muzaffar.” Revue Du Monde Musulman et de La Méditerranée 67 (1993): 13–24. doi: 10.3406/remmm.1993.1584. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TV9TVUZ5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TV9TVUZ5</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Stookey 1978, 114) Robert W. Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3</a>. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for the entire polity could be found in the sources consulted, but Aden, the capital, likely had a population of c. 50,000 under the Rasūlids. §REF§ (Bidwell 1983, 14) Bidwell, Robin Leonard. 1983. The Two Yemens. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WR5RMRMQ/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WR5RMRMQ/</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 12, "name": "Yemeni Coastal Plain", "subregion": "Arabia", "longitude": "43.315739000000", "latitude": "14.850891000000", "capital_city": "Sanaa", "nga_code": "YE", "fao_country": "Yemen", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 44, "name": "Arabia", "subregions_list": "Arabian Peninsula", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 554, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "VERY_RARELY_COMMENT: The following quote suggests that factional disputes within Sunnism caused civil violence. “The Seljuks are traditionally characterised by their avid support for Sunnism. This formed a key part of Seljuk propaganda, end even today continues to influence scholarly and popular perceptions of the dynasty. While older scholarship suggested that the Seljuks spearheaded a ‘Sunni revival’ after the domination of the Shi’ite Buyids, more recently this had been replaced with a view of the eleventh and twelfth centuries as witnessing a process of ‘recentring’ of Sunnism – which, its is argued, the ‘ulama’ sought to make increasingly homogenous, not least through institutions like the madrasa. At the same time, Sunnism was polarised by bitter disputes between adherents of the three law schools (madhhabs) of the Islamic east: the Hanbalis, Hanafis and Shafi’is. These madhhabs lent their name not just to factional disputes among the katibs, but to bitter rivalries that split communities in virtually every town in the Seljuk domains, frequently erupting into fitna (civil disorder). Although Ismailism was widely perceived by Sunnis in the Seljuk lands as a nuisance and a threat (Twelver Shi’ism rather less so). Shi’ites of either variety represented a minority in most areas of the Seljuk realm (parts of Arab Iraq, the northern Jibal between Sawa and Qumm, and Aleppo being the major exceptions with significant or majority Twelver populations). The greatest challenge to public order was posed rather by these factional disputes within Sunnism.” […] “Muhammad’s reign may be an aberration for it seems that while on a popular level there was plenty of anti-Shi’ite prejudice, it did not generally feed into Seljuk policy, despite the widely repeated allegation that ‘being a Shi’ite is on the way to being a heretic (rafidiyi dhiliz-i mulhidist).” […] While the following quote does not give a specific example of societal violence against a religious group it does however speak of the intense prejudices between different Sunni schools of thought. “Sometimes, these imported Hanafis were intent on stirring up sectarian prejudice, with al-Balasaghuni, the Seljuk qadi of Damascus, declaring that Shafi’is were infidels and should pay the jizya, the poll tax reserved for non-Muslims.” […] The following quote suggests that there might have been societal tension or violence. “It was not for another ninety years that a second anti-Ash’ari mihna occurred. After Sanjar ceded Rayy to Mas’ud in 537/1142-3 in the wake of his defeat by the Qarakhitay, the western Sultan entered the city and forced leading Shafi’is to disavow Ash’arism publicly. At the instigation of Hanafi ‘ulama,’ Mas’ud took further measures against Ash’arism in Baghdad and Isfahan over the next three years. Isfahani notes that as a result, ‘a group joined the madhhab of Abu Hanifa, seeking personal advancement and out of fear, not because of God [i.e., belief].” […] The following quote suggests intense social tension not necessarily violence. “Relations between the two groups was virtually unheard of. The situation was doubtless exacerbated by the fact that the Muslim authorities recognized the Nestorian Catholicus as the representative of all Christian communities, Melkites and Jacobites included. Like the Exilarch, the Catholicus owed his office to caliphal appointment, and was responsible for gathering the jizya, the poll tax.” §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 249-250, 264, 268, 282) Peacock, A.C.S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37ZDZWAR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 37ZDZWAR </b></a> §REF§ <br> MORE_FREQUENTLY_THAN_VERY_RARELY_COMMENT: The following quote suggests that factional disputes within Sunnism caused civil violence. “The Seljuks are traditionally characterised by their avid support for Sunnism. This formed a key part of Seljuk propaganda, end even today continues to influence scholarly and popular perceptions of the dynasty. While older scholarship suggested that the Seljuks spearheaded a ‘Sunni revival’ after the domination of the Shi’ite Buyids, more recently this had been replaced with a view of the eleventh and twelfth centuries as witnessing a process of ‘recentring’ of Sunnism – which, its is argued, the ‘ulama’ sought to make increasingly homogenous, not least through institutions like the madrasa. At the same time, Sunnism was polarised by bitter disputes between adherents of the three law schools (madhhabs) of the Islamic east: the Hanbalis, Hanafis and Shafi’is. These madhhabs lent their name not just to factional disputes among the katibs, but to bitter rivalries that split communities in virtually every town in the Seljuk domains, frequently erupting into fitna (civil disorder). Although Ismailism was widely perceived by Sunnis in the Seljuk lands as a nuisance and a threat (Twelver Shi’ism rather less so). Shi’ites of either variety represented a minority in most areas of the Seljuk realm (parts of Arab Iraq, the northern Jibal between Sawa and Qumm, and Aleppo being the major exceptions with significant or majority Twelver populations). The greatest challenge to public order was posed rather by these factional disputes within Sunnism.” […] “True, the highest echelons of the bureaucracy were occupied by Sunnis, Kunduri and Nizamal-Mulk. However, Tughril’s occupation of Baghdad seems to have been welcomed by the Imami population of Karkh, perhaps inspired by the long-standing Imami belief that the Turks were the soldiers of the mahdi, the saviour at the end of time. Kunduri even intervened to stop the Hanbalis from daubing Karkh with Sunni slogans at the instigation of the fanatical Hanibali caliphal vizier, Ibn Muslima. The attacks on the prominent Imami scholar Abu Ja’far al-Tusi also seem to have been orchestrated by the Hanbali masses of Baghdad, not the Seljuk officials, and the new Shi’ite centre of Najaf appears to have been allowed to flourish unmolested.” […] “Muhammad’s reign may be an aberration for it seems that while on a popular level there was plenty of anti-Shi’ite prejudice, it did not generally feed into Seljuk policy, despite the widely repeated allegation that ‘being a Shi’ite is on the way to being a heretic (rafidiyi dhiliz-i mulhidist).” […] While the following quote does not give a specific example of societal violence against a religious group it does however speak of the intense prejudices between different Sunni schools of thought. “Sometimes, these imported Hanafis were intent on stirring up sectarian prejudice, with al-Balasaghuni, the Seljuk qadi of Damascus, declaring that Shafi’is were infidels and should pay the jizya, the poll tax reserved for non-Muslims.” […] The following quote suggests that there might have been societal tension or violence. “It was not for another ninety years that a second anti-Ash’ari mihna occurred. After Sanjar ceded Rayy to Mas’ud in 537/1142-3 in the wake of his defeat by the Qarakhitay, the western Sultan entered the city and forced leading Shafi’is to disavow Ash’arism publicly. At the instigation of Hanafi ‘ulama,’ Mas’ud took further measures against Ash’arism in Baghdad and Isfahan over the next three years. Isfahani notes that as a result, ‘a group joined the madhhab of Abu Hanifa, seeking personal advancement and out of fear, not because of God [i.e., belief].” […] The following quote suggests intense social tension not necessarily violence. “Relations between the two groups was virtually unheard of. The situation was doubtless exacerbated by the fact that the Muslim authorities recognized the Nestorian Catholicus as the representative of all Christian communities, Melkites and Jacobites included. Like the Exilarch, the Catholicus owed his office to caliphal appointment, and was responsible for gathering the jizya, the poll tax.” §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 249-250, 264, 268, 282) Peacock, A.C.S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37ZDZWAR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 37ZDZWAR </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 364, "name": "IrSeljq", "start_year": 1037, "end_year": 1157, "long_name": "Seljuk Sultanate", "new_name": "ir_seljuk_sultanate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Seljuks were a Turkic dynasty from east of the Aral Sea §REF§ (Bosworth 2001) C. E. Bosworth, 'Turks, Seljuk and Ottoman' in The Oxford Companion to Military History eds. Richard Holmes, Charles Singleton, and Dr Spencer Jones (2001) (al-Rahim 2010) Ahmed H. al-Rahim, 'Seljuk Turks' in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages ed. Robert E. Bjork (2010) §REF§ who ruled a relatively decentralized empire across Central Asia, Persia and Mesopotamia - with perhaps the exception of the powerful viziership of Nizam al-Mulk. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 48) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ .<br>The Seljuk Empire (1037-1157 CE) did not have a single political center as it was divided into western and eastern halves §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 6) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ ; the east had \"connotations of seniority in Turkic culture\" §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 41) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ and Nizam al-Mulk himself started his career in the Seljuk bureaucracy in Balkh. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 48) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ The western territories were known as the Sultanate of Iraq §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 7) A C S Peacock. 2015. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ and altogether there may have been 12 million under Seljuk rule in 1100 CE.<br>Nizam al-Mulk \"strove to suppress abuses, to introduce reforms, to initiate his still uncultured Saljuk masters into the arts of Perso-Islamic statecraft, and to provide competent and reliable theologians, judges, and secretaries for the state religion and administration.\" §REF§ (Bagley 1964, xxviii-xxix) F R C Bagley. trans. Huma'i, Jalal and Isaacs, H. D. eds. 1964. Ghazali's Book of Counsel for Kings (Nasihat Al-Muluk). Oxford University Press. London. §REF§ \"Nizam al-Mulk was particularly concerned with the construction and maintenance of trade routes, caravanserais, and bridges; the appointment of trustworthy market inspectors and tax collectors; and the appointment of spies throughout the realm - policies crucial to rooting out corruption and fostering confidence in local and long-distance trade.\" §REF§ (Lindsay 2005, 20) James E Lindsay. 2005. Daily Life in The Medieval Islamic World. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. Indianapolis. §REF§ <br>Within the Seljuk system of rule the caliph was the ultimate religious authority §REF§ (al-Rahim 2012) Ahmed H. al-Rahim, 'Seljuk Turks' in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages ed. Robert E. Bjork (2010) §REF§ §REF§ (al-Rahim 2012) Ahmed H. al-Rahim, 'Seljuk Turks' in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages ed. Robert E. Bjork (2010) §REF§ and the sultan was the head of secular power §REF§ Findley, Carter V., The Turks in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), P.69. §REF§ supported by a vizier of the diwan-i a'la. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 333) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ Seljuk maliks (princes) ruled provinces with an atabeg (supervisor) and a small court bureaucracy overseen by a vizier. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 194-195) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ <br>As an independent state the Seljuk Empire came to an end when it was defeated by the Mongols and the Sultan had to pay them tribute.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-10-30T18:00:53.813428Z", "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 442, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.\"§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 91, "name": "InKadam", "start_year": 345, "end_year": 550, "long_name": "Kadamba Empire", "new_name": "in_kadamba_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kadamba dynasty ruled over a region that largely falls within the boundaries of the modern-day Indian states of Karnataka and Maharashtra. §REF§ (Moraes [1931] 1990, 47) George Moraes. 1990. <i>The Kadamba Kula</i>. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. §REF§ An absolute start date could not be found in the specialist literature. However, much is known about this polity's monarchs. Most notably, Kakushtavarma, widely regarded as the greatest Kadamba king, concluded marriage alliances with prominent ruling families (thus extending Kadamba influence over much of the subcontinent) and created an internal police force to ensure the safe movement of people from one part of the empire to another. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 47) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ After Kakushtavarma, the empire was temporarily split among his heirs, each division with its own capital: Halsi for the north and west, Triparvata for the south, and Uchchangi for the east. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 49) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ The empire was partly reunited a generation later under Ravivarma. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 48) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ However, the polity disintegrated rapidly under Harivarma, and much of its territory was seized by the Chalukyas of Badami in the 540s CE. §REF§ (Kadambi 2007, 178) Hemanth Kadambi. 2007. 'Negotiated Pasts and Memorialized Present in Ancient India', in <i>Negotiating the Past in the Past: Identity, Memory, and Landscape in Archaeological Research</i>, edited by Norman Yoffee, 155-82. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In imitation of the Satavahanas, the Kadambas referred to their leader as <i>dharmamaharaja</i> §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 38) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ The dharmamaharaja was assisted at court by a royal council and the crown prince, and in the provinces he was represented by viceroys and governors. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 38) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for this period could be found in the specialist literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 36, "name": "Central India", "subregions_list": "Deccan, etc", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 661, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-06-10T10:39:50.736548Z", "modified_date": "2024-06-13T10:01:19.743880Z", "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "never", "polity": { "id": 15, "name": "MxPostM", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1426, "long_name": "Middle Postclassic Basin of Mexico", "new_name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_10", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Middle Postclassic (c. 1200-1426 CE). By this time, Tula no longer held sway over the region, and had been replaced by several city-states (altepetl). Documents written much later record the dynastic histories and conflicts between these city-states; toward the very end of this period, they came to form growing confederations, paving the way for the Aztec empire. §REF§ (Evans 2012: 123-124) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X</a>. §REF§ Major centres such as Azcapotzalco, Texcoco, or Cholula likely had between 20,000 and 30,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§ Each altepetl was ruled by a king (tlatoani) and a council of nobles. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 449) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 27, "name": "Basin of Mexico", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-99.130000000000", "latitude": "19.430000000000", "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico", "nga_code": "MX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": { "id": 82, "text": "a new_comment_text" }, "private_comment": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 457, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.\"§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-11T15:19:12.221140Z", "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 418, "name": "in_gurjara_pratihara_dyn", "start_year": 730, "end_year": 1030, "long_name": "Gurjar-Pratihara Dynasty", "new_name": "in_gurjara_pratihara_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The polity of Gurjar ran from c. 730 to 1030 CE with its territory spanning approximately 1 million square kilometres; roughly corresponding to a slightly smaller area than the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar combined. §REF§ (Keay 2000: 198) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X</a>. §REF§ <br>There has been no information could be found in the sources consulted regarding the polity's overall population, but the imperial capital of Kanauj is thought to have had a population of 80,000 people at its peak in 810 - 950 CE.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "JR: Changed start year from 810 to 730 CE -- now matches the date range for ruler transitions.", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-11T12:26:04.458158Z", "home_nga": { "id": 14, "name": "Middle Ganga", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "82.700000000000", "latitude": "25.750000000000", "capital_city": "Jaunpur", "nga_code": "UTPR", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 57, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 660, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-06-10T10:37:44.864555Z", "modified_date": "2024-06-13T09:40:21.811566Z", "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "never", "polity": { "id": 16, "name": "MxAztec", "start_year": 1427, "end_year": 1526, "long_name": "Aztec Empire", "new_name": "mx_aztec_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Late Postclassic period, when the Aztecs or Mexica rose to power (c. 1427-1526 CE). The Aztec Empire was born from the \"Triple Alliance\" between the city-states (altepetl) of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan, who agreed to collaborate on campaign of territorial expansion and share the resulting tribute and tax payments. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 449-451) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q</a>. §REF§ Within a century, the three cities came to control a significant portion of Northern Mesoamerica, the main exception being the West, which, despite some military successes on the part of the Triple Alliance early on, largely remained under the control of the Tarascans. §REF§ (Evans 2012: 125) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X</a>. §REF§ <br>As the empire grew, so did the power of Tenochtitlan, which became the de-facto administrative capital, whose ruler came to hold the title huey tlatoani (“high king”). Tenochtitlan's power was strongest over the empire's central provinces, where the Aztecs ruled through governors, judges, tax collectors and other officials that they appointed themselves. For the \"outer\" provinces, the Aztecs limited themselves to targeting major centres, where, again, they appointed their governors and administrative officials. Finally, the Aztecs secured their power over \"frontier\" provinces by guaranteeing military protection from external foes, in exchange for \"gifts\" of soldiers and prestige goods. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 455-457) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q</a>. §REF§ <br>By the time of Spanish conquest in the 1520s, Tenochtitlan likely housed between 150,000 and 250,000 people, §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§ perhaps even 3,000. §REF§ (De Rioja 2017: 220) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GC3T83JD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GC3T83JD</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 27, "name": "Basin of Mexico", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-99.130000000000", "latitude": "19.430000000000", "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico", "nga_code": "MX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": { "id": 77, "text": "a new_comment_text" }, "private_comment": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 473, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "‘‘‘ The literature consulted arguably implies the absence of significant religious communities outside of the Cwezi-kubandwa religious complex, which in turn suggests the absence of religiously motivated societal tensions. “The Cwezi-kubandwa religious complex covered most of Great Lakes Africa by the nineteenth century, being found in modern-day Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, north-west Tanzania and eastern Congo, a region united by closely related Bantu languages as well as traditions of kingship and other cultural similarities.”§REF§(Doyle 2007: 559) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9EXDF5UP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9EXDF5UP </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 687, "name": "Early Niynginya", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1897, "long_name": "Kingdom of Nyinginya", "new_name": "Early Niynginya", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_EAST", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-13T09:26:46.862473Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 2, "name": "East Africa", "subregions_list": "Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 46, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 514, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "\"Mutual tolerance and harmony did not always reign between rulers and clerics, for there were periodic jihads (Islamic religious wars) in Senegambia from at least the seventeenth century, and some of these affected Jolof.\" §REF§(Charles 1977: 19-22) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NRGZDV3Z\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NRGZDV3Z </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 674, "name": "se_cayor_k", "start_year": 1549, "end_year": 1864, "long_name": "Kingdom of Cayor", "new_name": "se_cayor_k", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": "The Kingdom of Cayor was part of the Wolof kingdoms who spoke the Wolof language in northern Senegal. §REF§ (McLaughlin 2008, 93) McLaughlin, Fiona. 2008. ‘Senegal: The Emergence of a National Lingua Franca’. In Languages and National Identity in Africa. Edited by Andrew Simpson. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/7VBFQ96V/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/7VBFQ96V/collection</a> §REF§ The Kingdom of Cayor originate in the 11th or 12th centuries but became part of the confederacy with the Jolof Empire in 14th century. §REF§ (Barry 1999, 263) Barry, Boubacar. 1999. ‘Senegambia from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century: Evolution of the Wolof, Sereer and ‘Tukuloor.’ In General History of Africa. V: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. Edited by B.A. Ogot. Berkely: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/24W2293H/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/24W2293H/collection</a> §REF§ The Cayor eventually broke the confederation with the Jolof Empire around 1549 CE and became an independent kingdom from which we get its start date. §REF§ (Europa Publications 2003, 358) Europa Publications. 2003. A Political Chronology of Africa. London: Taylor and Francis. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/528D563M/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/528D563M/collection</a> §REF§ The capital of the Kingdom was at Mdaud. §REF§ (Reclus 1892, 159) Reclus, Elisee et al. 1892. The Earth and Its Inhabitants: West Africa. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2494BGCZ/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2494BGCZ/collection</a> §REF§<br> Like its Wolof neighbours of Waalo, the kingdom of Cayor was largely involved in the slave and horse trades for the Atlantic and Saharan markets. §REF§ (Webb Jr 1993, 246) Webb Jr, James L.A. 1993. ‘The Horse and Slave Trade between the Western Sahara and Senegambia.’ Journal of African History. Vol. 34:2. Pp 221-246. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/JDZFX3SC/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/JDZFX3SC/collection</a> §REF§ The Kingdom of Cayor was monarchical and was ruled by the Damel or king. §REF§ (The Philanthropist no. II 1811, 204) 1811. ‘Manners and Customs of the People of Cayor, Sin and Sallum’ In The Philanthropist no. II. London: Longman and Company. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/C5553ITD/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/C5553ITD/collection</a> §REF§ For its duration, the Kingdom of Cayor worked together with the French for trade purposes, but in 1864 Senegal became a French colony. The last Damel of Cayor, Lat Dior, led a rebellion against the French and was defeated and exiled, officially ending the Kingdom’s rule. §REF§ (Europa Publications 2003, 358) Europa Publications. 2003. A Political Chronology of Africa. London: Taylor and Francis. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/528D563M/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/528D563M/collection</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 441, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice.\"§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 96, "name": "InKampi", "start_year": 1280, "end_year": 1327, "long_name": "Kampili Kingdom", "new_name": "in_kampili_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kampili Kingdom was a small, short-lived polity founded along the northern shore of the Tunghabadra river. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2003, 74) Carla Sinopoli. 2003. <i>The Political Economy of Craft Production</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ An absolute date for its founding could not be found in the specialist literature, but, in 1327 CE, the region was conquered by the Delhi Sultanate. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2003, 75) Carla Sinopoli. 2003. <i>The Political Economy of Craft Production</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Little is known about the sociopolitical structures of this polity, §REF§ (Sinopoli 2003, 75) Carla Sinopoli. 2003. <i>The Political Economy of Craft Production</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and no population estimates could be found in the specialist literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 36, "name": "Central India", "subregions_list": "Deccan, etc", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 570, "year_from": 1368, "year_to": 1606, "description": "“The Chinese people's resistance also began from the temples and may have had a very targeted character. In Shaozhou, some \"robbers\" attacked Matteo Ricci's church, but \"they retreated with nothing to show for it to a nearby temple, where they very likely came from\"; in despair, \"they sacrificed to idols in a temple for their own cause and then jointly swore to expel Europeans from Shaozhou.\" Later, when the people of Shaozhou could no longer tolerate the smell emanating from the burning of idols by the faithful Christians, they submitted a petition to the government. This was precisely during the period when the hardline representative Nicholas Longobardi was preaching in Shaozhou. He made great progress in converting people and in destroying temples and idols, which aroused strong dissatisfaction among the local clergy and ordinary people. Just as Shaozhou was hit by a drought, people blamed the burning of the Bodhisattva statue by the Christians for the lack of rainfall, and the two sides engaged in a fierce dispute, with some even plotting to kill Longobardi. In Nanchang, faced with the threat to Chinese cultural traditions posed by missionary activities, \"scholars brought charges against the Europeans, saying that they prohibited people from revering their ancestral idols, did not leave any heirs, and caused temples to become desolate, disturbing the city and countryside.\" Many ordinary people even went to the homes of the Christians to persuade them not to abandon their own gods and ancestors. As a result, when a fire broke out in one of the Christian's homes, no one in the neighborhood went to put it out, reasoning that they had abandoned their own gods and therefore deserved to be punished by the fire. (中国民众的反击也是从寺庙出发进行的，也许具有极鲜明的针对性。在韶州，一些“强盗”袭击了利玛窦的教堂，最后“他们一无所得地撤退到附近的寺庙里，他们很可能就是从那里来的”；而且“他们在绝望中，为自己的事情在一座庙里向偶像献祭，然后他们共同发誓要把欧洲人驱逐出韶州”。后来韶州人对教徒“焚毁偶像，由此发出的气味飘进寺里”再也难以忍受，便通过正常渠道向政府递交诉状。这时正是强硬派代表龙华民（Nicholas Longobardi）在韶州传教时期，他在吸收教徒、废庙毁像方面进展很大，引起当地僧俗的强烈不满。正好韶州遭遇旱灾，人们向神祈雨不灵，便归咎于教徒之焚烧观音像，双方发生激烈争执，甚至有人密谋杀掉龙华民。在南昌，迫于传教士活动对中国文化传统的危害，“诸士人遂诉于官，谓欧罗巴人禁人敬奉祖先遗像，不留后嗣，使寺庙荒寂，城乡骚扰”。很多老百姓还跑到教徒们的家里劝他们不要抛弃本国的神癨；结果有一位教徒家里着了火，四邻也不去救，理由就是他们抛弃了自己的神，所以应该让火去惩罚他们。)”§REF§ Zhao, Shiyu. (2002). Carnival and Daily Life: Temple Fairs and Folk Society since the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Beijing: Sanlian Shudian Press. §REF§“The Nanjing anti-Christian cases of 1616 and 1621, as well as the Fujian case, were all instigated by high-ranking officials, whereas the Nanchang case of 1607, the Nanjing case of 1608, and the Fu'an case of 1608 were initiated by the folk people. The Fu'an case relied on the power of kinship, while the Nanchang case appealed to the \"public opinion of scholars,\" representing two typical modes of popular anti-Christian movements. (從教案發動者來看，1616 年南京教案、1621 年南京教案和福建教案均由高級官員發動，1607 年南昌教案、1608 年南京教案、 福安教案則起自民間。福安教案依託於宗族力量，南昌教案則訴諸 “士人公議”，分別代表了民間排教的兩種典型模式。) ”§REF§ Huang, Yun. \"The Nanchang Anti-Christian Case of 1607: Its Charges, Theories and Background.\" Journal for the Study of Christian Culture, No. 28, 2012, pp. 130-156. Beijing: Institute for the Study of Christian Culture. §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "CnMing*", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644, "long_name": "Great Ming", "new_name": "cn_ming_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "After 300 years of rule by outsiders, the Ming Dynasty, lasting from the fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries CE, restored Chinese rule to the region. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ The dynasty was founded by a peasant rebel general, Zhu Yuanzhang, later known as Emperor Taizu or the Hongwu Emperor. §REF§ (Brook 1998, 8) Timothy Brook. 1998. <i>The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Taizu destroyed the Yuan capital in Beijing, forced the Mongols to retreat to Mongolia, and founded the Ming capital in Nanjing in 1368 CE. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 191) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The period saw a resurgence of Chinese intellectualism and economic activity, §REF§ (Mote, Twitchett and Fairbank 1988, 1) Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank. 1988 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644</i>, edited by Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, 1-10. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ but Ming emperors often struggled to control their massive empire and they do not tend to number among the Chinese emperors considered 'great' by historians. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 216) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Ming expanded their territory to the southwest during their rule. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 190) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, they never expanded into Mongolia - conflict with the Mongols in the north led the Ming emperors instead to carry out restorations works on the Great Wall. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The Dynasty came to an end in 1644 CE, when the region was re-captured by descendants of Jin Dynasty's Jurchen rulers from Manchuria known as Qing.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Ming emperors were not consistent in their style of rule. While Emperor Taizu ruled as an autocrat, some Ming emperors left the governance of the nation in the hands of officials and eunuchs. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 216) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The emperor presided over the central government in concert with various levels of chief ministers and imperial officials, and the central government structure was replicated on a smaller scale at the provincial level. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ Officials were recruited through an examination system. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The period was marked by increasing openness to non-Confucian ideas and an increase in literacy among the lower levels of society. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Intellectual culture flourished among the elites §REF§ (Mote, Twitchett and Fairbank 1988, 1) Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank. 1988 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644</i>, edited by Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, 1-10. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and the publishing industry expanded greatly in the Lower Yangtze region. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 190) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Novels, including <i>The Romance of the Three Kingdoms</i> and <i>Water Margin</i>, and the play <i>Peony Pavilion</i> were written in the Ming period. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html</a>. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The rapid growth of the international trading system along with foreign desire for Chinese porcelain and silk led to large increases in foreign trade and an influx of silver into the Ming economy. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In the later Ming period, trade conflicts impacted China's foreign silver supply, leading to massive deflation. The Ming government, near bankruptcy, could not fund military campaigns against the rebellion spreading through the nation. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 215) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Ming population was between 60 million and 66.5 million in 1400 CE and 90 million and 110 million in 1600 CE. §REF§ 《明太祖實錄 卷140》 §REF§ §REF§ (Weatherhead East Asian Institute 2008) Weatherhead East Asian Institute. 2008. 'Issues and Trends in China's Demographic History'. Asia for Educators. Columbia University. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm</a>. 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