Soc Vio Freq Rel Grp List
A viewset for viewing and editing Social Violence Against Religious Groups.
GET /api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?format=api&ordering=-tag
{ "count": 222, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?format=api&ordering=-tag&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 602, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "‘‘‘Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that “unknown” is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era.ode with regards to religious variables in this era.", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 118, "name": "PkCeraN", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000, "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "new_name": "pk_kachi_lnl", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kachi Plain, in modern-day Pakistan, is hemmed in on two of its three sides by the mountains of Baluchistan, while its southeastern side opens up to the Indus Valley. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 29) Jarrige, Jean-François, and Jean-François Enault. 1976. “Fouilles de Pirak - Baluchistan.” Arts Asiatiques 32 (1): 29-70. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Q32UJUPX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Q32UJUPX</a>. §REF§ The earliest evidence for agriculture here was found in Mehrgarh and dates to 7000 BCE. By 5500, the people of Mehrgarh had begun to rely more on bovine and ovicaprine pastoralism for their meat, as opposed to hunting. Starting from around this time, there is also an increase in the number of known farming settlements in the region, most notably Kili Ghul Mohammad, Anjira, Siah Damb, and Rana Gundai. There is evidence for an increased range of craft activities and the first granaries appeared in Mehrgarh, as well as, perhaps, small-scale irrigation. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 57-61) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>It is not possible to give an accurate estimate of the region's population at this time, §REF§ (Possehl 1999, 472) Possehl, Gregory L. 1999. Indus Age: The Beginnings. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWNUD7IH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWNUD7IH</a>. §REF§ and the size of occupied Mehrgarh is uncertain, as the population shifted over time and part of the site has been cut away by the Bolan River. §REF§ (Jarrige 2013, 135-154) Jarrige, J.-F. 2013. Mehrgarh Neolithic. Paris: Éditions de Boccard. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4MKZA34B\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4MKZA34B</a>. §REF§ Similarly, the literature does not provide many clues as to the political organization of Mehrgarh or any other site in the region during the period, although the appearance of granaries at Mehrgarh may suggest increasing social complexity. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 61) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 13, "name": "Kachi Plain", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "67.628836000000", "latitude": "29.377664000000", "capital_city": "Mehrgarh", "nga_code": "PK", "fao_country": "Pakistan", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 38, "name": "Pakistan", "subregions_list": "Pakistan", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 626, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-02-15T11:48:15.895464Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 333, "name": "FrValoE", "start_year": 1328, "end_year": 1450, "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Valois", "new_name": "fr_valois_k_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The French crown passed to the Valois Dynasty in 1328 after a succession crisis within the ruling Capetian family, and the Valois reigned over the French kingdom until 1589 CE. Here we focus on the early Valois period, 1328-1450 CE, which was marked by the Hundred Years' War and the economic and human devastation caused by the Black Death. By the mid-15th century, the beginnings of a more modern bureaucracy had developed under Charles VII.<br>In this period, the territory of the Kingdom of France was considerably smaller than that of modern France. §REF§ (Knecht 2004, 2) Knecht, Robert J. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon and London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI</a>. §REF§ The kingdom covered 390,000 square kilometres in 1350 and 340,000 square kilometres in 1450. §REF§ (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113) Turchin, Peter and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH</a>. §REF§ <br>In response to the decline in population and production during the Black Death in the mid-fourteenth century, the crown instituted harsh financial reforms and higher taxes. This led to revolts by peasants and in urban areas. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 44) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ At the same time, the Valois faced the English Plantagenet dynasty in the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453 CE). The French suffered major defeats at Bruges (1340 CE) and Agincourt (1415 CE). Historian of France W. Scott Haine notes that, “In the darkest days of this war France’s very existence seemed in question.” §REF§ (Haine 2000, 44) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ In 1439 CE, inspired by the actions of peasant leader Joan of Arc, Charles VII of France instituted a professional standing army. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 45) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ Charles VII conquered Normandy and Aquitaine by 1453 CE, and England only maintained control over Calais.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>We have estimated the population of the French Kingdom as 12 million in 1350 CE using data from Turchin and Nefedov’s <i>Secular Cycles.</i> §REF§ (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113) Turchin, Peter and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton, University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH/</a> §REF§ The population declined drastically during the Black Plague in the mid-fourteenth century. §REF§ (Knecth 2004, 2) Knecht. Robert. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon Continuum. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI</a> §REF§ An estimated one-third of population died in the plague by 1400 CE. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 44) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ In 1450 CE, the population was only 9 million. §REF§ (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113) Turchin, Peter and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton, University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH/</a> §REF§ <br>The king and royal lineage dominated French political society. Others were divided into estates: the clergy, the nobles, and the common people. §REF§ (Knecth 2004, 8) Knecht. Robert. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon Continuum. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI</a> §REF§ During the time of the Valois there were 40,000 noble families in France- nobility was either inherited or bestowed by the king. §REF§ (Knecth 2004, 8) Knecht. Robert. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon Continuum. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI</a> §REF§ Charles VII (1422-1461 CE) began the process to modernize the crown- instituting reforms to change the government from feudal to bureaucratic. This was continued by Late Valois ruler Louis XI (1461-1483 CE). §REF§ (Haine 2000, 46) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 550, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Notably, there was also intracommunal tension within the empire. For instance, Jews and Christians often encountered problems. Yet another journalist wrote in Serez in the Balkans, ‘Whenever a priest passed by, the Jews shouted that he did so in black with worms coming out of his mouth. In the frequent fights between the Jews and the Rum, the latter referred to as ‘Grekaya’ were always destined to lose. The Bulgarians were known as bullies while Albanians were trusted… As for the Turks, they were home owners from whom one held off.” §REF§ (Gocek 2015, 79) Gocek, Fatma Muge. Denial of Violence: Ottoman Past, Turkish Present, and Collective Violence Against the Armenians, 1789-2009. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZM8F5IE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FZM8F5IE </b></a> §REF§ “One should not, obviously, ignore the powerful evidence for the mutual contempt and hostility that could be projected across the religious divides – the janissaries who beat a Christian arms merchant to death in the market, shouting ‘Why are you an unbeliever? So much sorrow you are!’; the Jewish householders who mocked Christian worshippers during holy festivals; the stuffed effigies of Judas burned with much glee by the Orthodox during Easter. (Muslims were occasionally mocked in public too, but only by those who wished to become martyrs).” §REF§ (Mazower 2006, 65-66) Mazower, Mark. 2006. Salonica City of Ghosts: Christians, Muslims and Jews 1430-1950. New York: Vintage Books. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JX5W2B2S\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JX5W2B2S </b></a> §REF§ “On July 15, 1858, a native mob at Jeddah fell upon the Christians in their midst; among their victims were the French consul and the British vice consul. A Franco-British squadron bombarded the town eleven days later. This incident had repercussions later beyond Jeddah for it increased the fanatic zeal of the Christians, especially the Maronites of Mount Lebanon, who had been promoting a second civil war using money received by the Europeans in the first civil war to buy firearms and ammunition. In the months preceding the massacre, the European consul engaged Bishop Tobia, whose sinister influence as a promoter of the clashes against the Druze was notorious, as a missionary. This confirmed the Druze and Muslim suspicions of a conspiracy formed by the Christians, in particular the Maronite clergy, backed by interested European governments, to despoil them of their land and goods. The Maronites initiated disturbances, though the Druze, who were far superior in military tactics and discipline, retaliated as ferociously as their opponents […] Consular reports from the months of May, June, and July 1860 mention the looting and burning of villages; the sacking of monasteries, churches, and mosques; a number of forced conversions; the slaughter of children, women and older people; and the rape and abduction of women and young girls.” The following quote refers to conflict in the Ottoman Balkans “In early May 1876 an upheaval took place in the Ottoman province of Rumelia when bands of insurgents killed Ottoman officials and Muslim civilians.” §REF§ (Rodogno 2012, 98, 146) Rodogno, Davide. 2012. Against Massacre: Humanitarian Interventions in The Ottoman Empire 1815-1914. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ICHJHS7B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ICHJHS7B </b></a> §REF§ “Acts of violence perpetrated by the Turkish element of the island had let to a rise in tension. On 11 May killings and looting were carried out against the Greeks of Chania and quickly spread to the countryside around, and especially to the villages of the provinces of Kydonia and Kisamos. Similar incidents also took place in Heraklion and in the villages of Pediada. On 26 June 1896 the Turks slaughtered the monks of the monastery of St. John in Anopoli in the province of Pediada and laid waste the villages of the district.” §REF§ (Detorakis 1994, 362) Detorakis, Theocharis. 1994. History of Crete. Iraklion: University of Crete. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SRAR2RBX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SRAR2RBX </b></a> §REF§ “The Muslims gathered in downtown Chania to protest these developments. On the same day, when the cavass of the Russian Consulate, accompanied by four Christians, was on his way to Halepa, he was confronted by a gendarmerie officer who told him that it was not advisable to leave for Halepa. Angry words were exchanged. The Russian cavass fired his revolver, wounding the gendarmerie officer and killing an Arab. Immediately afterwards, the Russian cavass was killed by Muslims who just happened to be there. This incident caused panic and fear among the people and street-fighting broke out between the Muslims and the Christians of Chania. Many people from both sides were killed within a very short time. Houses were burnt and plundered, olive gardens and farms were set of fire, and mosques and churches were destroyed. Every single shop in the bazaar was closed and no one was to be seen of the streets.” The following quote discusses the Cretan revolt of 1897. “Although the causes given for the outbreak of this revolt may have differed from one source to the other, what is clear here is that the Christian insurgents took the arms of the Muslims and used them on their previous owners. Christian insurgents attacked Muslim villages and the Muslim women and children who took refuge in the mosques. In almost all the villages of Sitia, the Muslims were methodically surrounded by the Christians and massacred. The Muslim med had few arms to defend themselves. After a while, these arms were handed over to the Christian insurgents. Then the mosques were set of fire by the insurgents and most of the Muslims who gathered in the mosques were killed. Some of them took refuge in caves. The insurgents plundered the Muslim villages and sacked and burnt all their houses and other properties. Certain Muslim girls were also forcibly converted to Christianity.” §REF§ (Senisik 2011, 113-114, 156) Senisik, Pinar. 2011. The Transformation of Ottoman Crete: Revolts, Politics and Identity in the Late Nineteenth Century. London: I.B. Tauris. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/626NBKFI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 626NBKFI </b></a> §REF§ “Not only the Armenians, but also other Christian minorities had such complaints. For example, the Assyrian Patriarch, Mar Rouil Shimon, wrote an official letter to the Russian tsar, dated May 14, 1868: ‘…We are a poor nation; my people have not enough grain to provide themselves with bread…The Kurds have forcibly taken many of our Churches and convents, the constantly abduct our virgins, brides, and women, forcing them to turn Moslems…The Turks are worse, they do not protect us, demand military taxes, poll taxes, also the Kurds take our money for they consider us as ‘Zirr Kurr’ (slaves – being Christians…) …Now, such being our condition, we beseech your mightiness, for the sake of Jesus, His Baptism, and cross. Either to free us from such a state or to procure us a remedy…” §REF§ (Shirinian 2017, 24-25) Shirinian, George. 2017. ‘The Background to the Late Ottoman Genocides.’ In Genocide in the Ottoman Empire: Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks 1913-1923. Edited by George N. Shirnian. Oxford: Berghahn. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PHUNFGK9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PHUNFGK9 </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 177, "name": "TrOttm5", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1922, "long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV", "new_name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-11-20T10:36:18.319606Z", "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 601, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "‘‘‘Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that “unknown” is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era.ode with regards to religious variables in this era.", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 120, "name": "PkPreUr", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2500, "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Pre-Urban Period", "new_name": "pk_kachi_pre_urban", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Pre-Urban period in the Indus Valley, also known as the Early Harappan or Early Indus, started around 3200 and ended around 2600 BCE. Here we extend it to include the transitional century or so between the Early and the Mature Harappan. This period was characterized by the spread of farming communities across the Indus Basin, reaching as far as the Upper Ganga-Yamuna Doab in modern-day North India. Overall, this was not a period of great innovation, but precursors of writing appear to have emerged at this time, and, together with the appearance of seals and weights, these point to a shift in organizational complexity. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 67-72) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>No population estimates could be found in the literature. There is also no clear picture of political organization at this time - seals have been found in relevant archaeological contexts, but the existence of a bureaucratic apparatus remains unlikely. §REF§ A. Ceccarelli, personal communication to E. Cioni, February 2017. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 13, "name": "Kachi Plain", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "67.628836000000", "latitude": "29.377664000000", "capital_city": "Mehrgarh", "nga_code": "PK", "fao_country": "Pakistan", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 38, "name": "Pakistan", "subregions_list": "Pakistan", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 547, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“One should not, obviously, ignore the powerful evidence for the mutual contempt and hostility that could be projected across the religious divides – the janissaries who beat a Christian arms merchant to death in the market, shouting ‘Why are you an unbeliever? So much sorrow you are!’; the Jewish householders who mocked Christian worshippers during holy festivals; the stuffed effigies of Judas burned with much glee by the Orthodox during Easter. (Muslims were occasionally mocked in public too, but only by those who wished to become martyrs).” §REF§ (Mazower 2006, 65-66) Mazower, Mark. 2006. Salonica City of Ghosts: Christians, Muslims and Jews 1430-1950. New York: Vintage Books. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JX5W2B2S\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JX5W2B2S </b></a> §REF§“Christian society in the empire, irrespective of ethnic affiliation, perceived Jews as a group implanted by the Ottoman conquerors, and as the Sultan’s loyal servants. Even before the rise of the nationalist movements in the Balkans, this perception was sufficient to single out Jews as the enemies of Christian society in the empire. Since the Muslims’ superiority was uncontested, Jews were the only sparing partner left. The Orthodox ecclesiastical tradition lent a moral imprimatur to this attitude. Many Greek, Macedonian and Bulgarian folksongs of this time portrayed Jews as cunning, avaricious and miserly, and accused them of abducting young women and Christian children for nefarious purposes. Thus while the Ottoman Muslims saw Jews as clever, cowardly and contemptible, the Greek Orthodox saw the Jews as down right evil and dangerous.” §REF§ (Rozen 2008, 262-263) Rozen, Minna. 2008. ‘The Ottoman Jews’ In The Cambridge History of Turkey Vol. 3: The Later Ottoman Empire 1603-1839. Edited by Suraiya N. Faroqhi. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CZ6KNCP9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CZ6KNCP9 </b></a> §REF§ “Turkish reprisals were ruthless. On 29 June [1821] bishop Melhisedek Despotakis of Kisamos was hanged and the bishop of Kydonia, Kallinikos Sarpakis, was imprisoned along with his deacon Arteminos. The abbots of the monasteries were also killed. A group of incensed Muslims entered the convent of St. John the Baptist) a monastic dependency of the monastery of Gdernettos) at Korakies, near Akrotiri, and raped and slaughtered the nuns […] It was at Heraklion that atrocities reached their height. The Turks of the town asked Serif Pasha for permission to bear arms. On 23 June a Turkish ship arrived at the harbour, bearing news of atrocities in Constantinople and Smyrna against the Greeks and the hanging of the Greek patriarch. This served to trigger off the most violent massacre that Crete had known and was to remain indelibly engraved in the people’s memory. On the morning of 24 June the bishop Neophytos of Knossos, Ioakeim of Cherronesos, Ierotheos of Lambi and Spahkia, Zacharias of Siteia and Kallinikos of Diopolis. The cathedral was plundered and put to the torch. The abbots of the monasteries and other clerics were all killed. It is estimated that the number of dead on that day in Herakleion and its outlying districts was no less than 800.” §REF§ (Detorakis 1994, 295-296) Detorakis, Theocharis. 1994. History of Crete. Iraklion: University of Crete. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SRAR2RBX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SRAR2RBX </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 176, "name": "TrOttm4", "start_year": 1683, "end_year": 1839, "long_name": "Ottoman Empire III", "new_name": "tr_ottoman_emp_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Ottoman Empire during the period between 1683 and 1839 CE was at its most powerful, but was frequently beset by revolts that threatened to break it apart, particularly in Egypt. However, the dynasts in Istanbul successfully retained power behind a protective veil of elite slaves, acquired by tribute from conquered provinces and raised and educated to run the government and military. The Ottoman 'slave-elite' differed from that of the Mamluk Sultanate in that the Ottoman slaves could never achieve the position of sultan, which remained the hereditary property of the Osman dynasty. Although this failed to prevent palace intrigues or succession crises, the sultans of this period made progress toward greater unification of the empire's dense patchwork of languages and ethnicities. Trading on their successful military conquests, the Ottoman sultans claimed the title of 'caliph of all the Muslims in the world'. §REF§ (Inalcik and Quataert 1997, 20) Halil Inalcik and Donald Quataert. 1997. 'General Introduction', in <i>An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Volume One: 1300-1600</i>, edited by Halil Inalcik with Donald Quataert, 1-8. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Ottoman Empire was a hereditary dynasty under the rule of an Ottoman Sultan. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 87) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The Ottoman 'slave-elite' differed from that of the Mamluk Sultanate in that the Ottoman slaves could never achieve the position of sultan, which remained the hereditary property of the Osman dynasty. With its capital in Istanbul, the main organ of state power was the 'elaborate court, palace, and household government'. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Policy-making was weakly institutionalized: in theory, all decisions were made by the sultan himself, and so Ottoman policies were shaped by the sultan's personal character and by the 'individuals or factions who had his ear'. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The sultans appointed their own staff and paid them with a wage or (increasingly after 1600 CE) a fief. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 171) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ State funding came in large part from money raised by fief holders until Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pasha Kulliyesi introduced a property tax around 1718 CE. §REF§ (Palmer 1992) Alan Palmer. 1992. <i>The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire</i>. London: John Murray. §REF§ <br>The administrative and military officials around the sultan were slaves educated in palace schools. §REF§ (Nicolle 1983, 10) David Nicolle. 1983. <i>Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774</i>. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§ The source of this non-Turkish administrative class was the <i>devsirme</i> tribute, which began in 1438 CE; by the 16th century about 1,000 boys were taken per year per recruiting province in the Balkans and non-Muslim communities in Anatolia. The system divided these slaves into those who would serve the bureaucracy and those who would form the elite military corps known as janissaries. In 1582 CE, recruits of non-devsirme origin, including free Muslims, were permitted to join the janissaries and after 1648 CE the devsirme system was no longer used to recruit for the janissaries. §REF§ (Nicolle 1983, 9-11, 20) David Nicolle. 1983. <i>Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774</i>. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§ The imperial household together with its armies and administrative officials was truly vast, numbering about 100,000 people by the 17th century. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Ottoman sultans issued decrees to their approximately 24 million subjects through an imperial council (<i>divan</i>) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ and the chief executive power below the sultan, the grand vizier. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Although certain regions (Egypt, for example) may have differed slightly in their governing structure, Ottoman regional government typically involved governors (<i>beylerbeyi</i>) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 177-78) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ whose provinces were split into districts (<i>sanjaks</i>) under district governors (<i>sanjak beyi</i>). §REF§ (Imber 2002, 184) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The sanjak beyi also was a military commander. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 189) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Fief-holding soldiers were responsible for local law and order within their districts. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 194) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ By the late 16th century, the lowest level of this system had transformed into a system of tax farms or fiefs given to non-military administrators. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 209, 215) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ In 1695 CE, these tax farms were 'sold as life tenures (<i>malikane</i>)', and later shares in tax farms were sold to the public. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 473) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Ottoman law was divided into religious - Islamic sharia - and secular <i>kanun</i> law. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Kanun law essentially served to fill the gaps left by the religious legal tradition, regulating 'areas where the provisions of the sacred law were either missing or too much at at odds with reality to be applicable'. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ In the Ottoman Empire, this included aspects of criminal law, land tenure and taxation; kanun law drew its legitimacy from precedent and custom. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Military judges (<i>kadi'asker</i>) were the heads of the empire's judiciary and heard cases brought before the imperial council. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 157) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 625, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“[T]he Edict of St-Germain was decidedly not a Protestant victory; the same longstanding problem remained: how to enforce the peace settlement amidst a clear majority of Catholics who were pursuing a new Jerusalem devoid of all infidel.”§REF§ Holt, M.P. 2005. The French Wars of Religion, 1562 - 1629. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pg. 71. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BRM4FZCX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BRM4FZCX </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 459, "name": "FrValoL", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1589, "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Valois", "new_name": "fr_valois_k_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Late Valois (Valois dynasty) represent the last century of Valois rule over the French Kingdom from 1450-1589 CE. The period was greatly impacted by the French Renaissance, external war against the Italians and Habsburgs, and the internal Wars of Religion. First Late Valois king Louis XI (1461-1483 CE) continued to modernize the royal government, and implemented the first royal postal service. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 46) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ The French Renaissance hit its cultural peak during the rule of Frances I (1515-1547 CE) and Henry II (1547-1559 CE). Artists and scholars traveled from Italy to France, and had an immense impact on architecture, culture, and art. Urban life was transformed by Renaissance culture and the printing press. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 47) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ <br>Calais was returned to France from England, and Burgundy, Dauphiné, Provence, and the Three Bishoprics in Lorraine were secured in this period. §REF§ (Jones 1999, 130) Jones, Colin. 1999. The Cambridge Illustrated History of France. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7QCEQCM6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7QCEQCM6</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Haine 2000, 46) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ The territory of the Kingdom of France was between 400,000 and 500,000 square meters during the rule of the Late Valois. §REF§ (Potter, 1995, 4) Potter, D. 1995. A History of France, 1460-1560. The Emergence of a Nation State. Macmillan. London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DVCUX6RX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DVCUX6RX</a> §REF§ Outside of Europe, explorer Jacques Cartier paved the way for future French colonies in Canada, and French explorers and merchants began to exploit the west African coast. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 48) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ <br>The Valois fought the Italian Wars from 1494-1559 CE over the French crown’s claim on the kingdom of Naples. In 1519 CE, Charles V of the Spanish Habsburgs became the Holy Roman Emperor. The wars in Italy were the start of a lasting rivalry between the Habsburgs and Valois. In 1559 CE, France gave up all claims in Italy. §REF§ (Jones 1999, 130) Jones, Colin. 1999. The Cambridge Illustrated History of France. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7QCEQCM6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7QCEQCM6</a> §REF§ The last Valois kings were weakened by the Wars of Religion (Huguenot Wars) (1562-1598 CE), between the Roman Catholics and Reformed Protestants. 3 million people died in the conflict or from famine or disease during the war. §REF§ (Knetcht 2002, 91) Knecht, Robert J. 2002. The French Religious Wars 1562-1598. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7QCEQCM6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7QCEQCM6</a> §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Early Valois king Charles VII's work to modernize the French government was continued by Louis XI. The royal council became less feudal and more bureaucratic, the king was advised by professional lawyers rather than feudal vassals, and the financial and judicial functions of government were separated. §REF§ (Jones 1999, 123) Jones, Colin. 1999. The Cambridge Illustrated History of France. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7QCEQCM6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7QCEQCM6</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Haine 2000, 46) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ <br>The disasters of the late 14th and 15th century had decimated the population of many cities and towns in France. The nation recovered by the late 15th century. §REF§ (Jones 1999, 130) Jones, Colin. 1999. The Cambridge Illustrated History of France. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7QCEQCM6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7QCEQCM6</a> §REF§ The population of the Kingdom of France during the recovery period in 1470 CE is estimated to be between 10 million and 12 million. §REF§ (Potter, 1995, 170) Potter, D. 1995. A History of France, 1460-1560. The Emergence of a Nation State. Macmillan. London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DVCUX6RX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DVCUX6RX</a> §REF§ In 1560 CE, the population reached 20 million. §REF§ (Potter, 1995, 8) Potter, D. 1995. A History of France, 1460-1560. The Emergence of a Nation State. Macmillan. London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DVCUX6RX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DVCUX6RX</a> §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 446, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“All the above liberal and benefactory acts might have been made from the administrative point of view or might have taken with good intention. The Muslim officers who were in the service of the Vijayanagara kings strived to earn their favor. But in a rare event, common people exhibited unprecedented harmony between Hindu and Muslim communities.Sindugatta is a place in K.R. Pete taluk of Mandya district, Karnataka. The Muslim community of place had no mosque in their village in the early part of the Sixteenth century. Babu-setti, a local merchant of the place constructed a stone mosque in the very centre of the place ( Olakere ) in 1537 A.D.15 For this mosque Ranga-nayaka, a local officer made a grant of a village named Sivapura, a house to Habiba and 14 gady anas etc. The inscription calls the mosque \"stone mosque- temple\" ( Kalla masitiya devastahana). Another important fact is that the house of Habiba was made tax free. He seems to be the priest or quazi of the mosque. The man who constructed this mosque had not received any kind of direction from the king or administrative agency. He voluntarily came farward to do this act as a symbol of Hindu-Muslim amity. Politically there was a great enemity between the kings of Vijayanagara and the Sultans of the Deccan states at this time. However, the people had not taken these political situations into their consideration. They had developed the tendency of respecting the other communities and faith and they lived in such a manner. The liberal tolerant policy towards all religions was patronized by the kings, their officers and the people. It had become a state policy of the empire” §REF§ (Shivarudraswamy 2005, 396-397) Shivarudraswamy, S. N. (2005). HINDU-MUSLIM RELATIONS UNDER THE VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 66, 394–398. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MTUQI5NA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MTUQI5NA </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "never", "polity": { "id": 97, "name": "InVijay", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1646, "long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire", "new_name": "in_vijayanagara_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Vijayanagara Empire ruled over southern India: specifically, it comprised an area roughly equivalent to the modern-day Indian states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 329) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ This polity could be said to have been founded with the establishment of the fortified city of Vijayanagara itself in 1340, and it fragmented into many smaller polities roughly three hundred years later, due to both civil wars and incursions from Islamic polities to the North. §REF§ (Stein 1990, 2, 13) Burton Stein. 1990. <i>The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Under Vijayanagara rule, architecture flourished (many temples were built or rebuilt, and the first permanent non-religious buildings, including royal palaces, were constructed), trade and agriculture boomed, new towns were founded, and new notions of legal rights emerged. §REF§ (Stein 1990, xii, 2) Burton Stein. 1990. <i>The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>As with most preceding South Indian polities, the Vijayanagara ruler sat at the top of both administrative and military hierarchies. §REF§ (Majumdar, Raychaudhuri and Datta 1974, 373) R. C. Majumdar, H. C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta. 1974. <i>An Advanced History of India</i>. Delhi: Macmillan India. §REF§ He was assisted at court by several ministers, and in the provinces by governors. §REF§ (Majumdar, Raychaudhuri and Datta 1974, 373-74) R. C. Majumdar, H. C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta. 1974. <i>An Advanced History of India</i>. Delhi: Macmillan India. §REF§ <br>Assuming that the entire population of the Indian subcontinent at this time equalled 150 million, it seems reasonable to estimate that the population of the Vijayanagara empire was about 25 million. §REF§ (Stein 1990, 44) Burton Stein. 1990. <i>The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Burton Stein estimates that the city of Vijayanagara at its height in the 16th century had over 100,000 inhabitants, §REF§ (Stein 1990, 75) Burton Stein. 1990. <i>The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ while Carla Sinopoli believes the population could have been over 250,000. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2000, 370) Carla Sinopoli. 2000. 'From the Lion Throne: Political and Social Dynamics of the Vijayanagara Empire'. <i>Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient</i> 43 (3): 364-98. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 36, "name": "Central India", "subregions_list": "Deccan, etc", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 495, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "The following quote suggests at least occasional violence against Jews prior to October 1497, and the violence directed at Jews after their conversion to Christianity after that date may well have been partly motivated by the suspicion to that they were still following Judaism, thus justifying a \"present\" code here. \"Portuguese Jewry at the start of the Golden Age had been relatively free of serious molestation for many centuries– though Spanish Jews, who had fled to Portugal at the end of Joao II’s reign, were accorded much less favourable treatment. Jews in Portugal were unpopular and provided obvious scapegoats in times of stress; but they were nonetheless fairly well protected by the crown and the great magnates– for they were essential to national well-being, comprising a vital component of the mercantile bourgeoisie. Yet on 31 October 1497, Manuel ordered the expulsion, on pain of death, of all Jews and Muslims from his kingdom. [...] Of course, Manuel and his council were aware of the damage a Jewish exodus could inflict on the Portuguese economy and therefore made every effort to convert the Jews instead. [...] Former Jews were guaranteed their property. They were to be officially known as New Christians (cristãos novos), and the use of insulting terms like marrano was prohibited. [...] Despite government policies, the popular odium previously reserved for Jews was now transferred to New Christians, and soon there were renewed outbreaks of anti-Semitic violence. The worst occurred in Lisbon in April 1506 when a frenzied mob, egged on by Dominican friars, massacred several thousand terrified New Christians, throwing many of them onto a huge bonfire in Lisbon’s central square, the Rossio.\" §REF§(Disney 2009a: 153-154) Disney, A. R. 2009a. A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire from Beginnings to 1807. Volume 1, Portugal. Cambridge University Press: 143. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: TKKDT5CZ </b></a>.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 708, "name": "pt_portuguese_emp_1", "start_year": 1495, "end_year": 1579, "long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Renaissance Period", "new_name": "pt_portuguese_emp_1", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": "2023-10-25T13:49:59.636980Z", "modified_date": "2024-04-10T08:42:10.711578Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 577, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“The legal implications of fengshui, which was often invoked in property disputes across China, explain the reason. Ethnographic accounts reveal that non-Muslim populations in the northwest at times attacked Islamic shrines on the suspicion that they hurt the fengshui of an area.” §REF§ (Brown 2019,460) Brown, Tristan G. 2019. ‘A Mountain of Saints and Sages: Muslims in the Landscape of Popular Religion in Late Imperial China.’ T'Oung Pao. Vol 105 (3-4): 437-491. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JFZXH7PI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JFZXH7PI </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "CnQingE", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796, "long_name": "Early Qing", "new_name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Qing Dynasty (or Empire of the Great Qing, Great Qing, Manchu Dynasty, Manchus, Jin, Jurchens, Ch'ing Dynasty) was China's last imperial dynasty. The founders of the Qing were descendants of Jurchen Jin rulers. The dynasty was founded by Nurhaci and then led by his son Huang Taiji, but did not become an imperial Chinese dynasty until after Huang Taiji's death. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ In 1644 CE, Qing forces captured the Ming capital at Beijing from rebels and held a funeral for the last Ming emperor to symbolize Qing inheritance of the Mandate of Heaven. §REF§ (San 2014, 338) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ <br>The Qing faced conflict with rebels and loyalist Ming forces for the next two decades. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ Ming generals who surrendered were given power over large territories in southern China in exchange for loyalty to the Qing. In 1673 CE, leaders from three major southern feudatories led by Wu Sangui rebelled against Emperor Kangxi when he tried to reduce their power. §REF§ (San 2014, 385) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ The Revolt of the Three Feudatories, as this episode is known, lasted eight years.<br>We divide the Qing Dynasty into two, an Early period (1644-1796 CE) and a Late period (1796-1912 CE). The division is marked by a period of internal turmoil as well as foreign incursions into its territory and economic sphere. In the Early Qing period, China had been prosperous under Kangxi and Qing rule, but by the time of the Opium Wars in the Late Qing, Western technology and industry had surpassed that of China. §REF§ (Mao 2005, 8) Haijin Mao. 2005. <i>The Qing Empire and the Opium War: The Collapse of the Heavenly Dynasty</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 gave rise to the Republic of China.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Qing ruled over an expansive empire, and its bureaucracy was more efficient than that of previous periods. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 1) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Qing rulers adopted the Chinese bureaucratic system first used in the Han and Tang Dynasties. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Dynasty Government, Administration and Law'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-admin.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ Before conquering the Ming, the Qing managed its population through a system of hereditary military organizations called the Eight Banners. §REF§ (Elliot 2011, 39) Mark C. Elliot. 2001. <i>The Manchu Way</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. §REF§ These became part of the administrative structure of the Qing Dynasty and were only open to those of Manchu descent. §REF§ (Elliot 2011, 39) Mark C. Elliot. 2001. <i>The Manchu Way</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. §REF§ In the later Qing period, however, the Eight Banners lost some of their political functions and served to enhance the prestige of the top Qing nobility. §REF§ (Elliot 2011, 40) Mark C. Elliot. 2001. <i>The Manchu Way</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. §REF§ <br>The central government was headed by the emperor and included a 'Grand Council', created by the Yongzheng emperor and expanded by the Qianlong emperor. §REF§ (Lorge 2005, 173) Peter Lorge. 2005. <i>War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900-1795</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ The Grand Council ruled over the central ministries and provided a way for the emperor to circumvent the official bureaucracy for many decisions. §REF§ (Lorge 2005, 173) Peter Lorge. 2005. <i>War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900-1795</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br>The Qing provincial government consisted of governors who controlled a hierarchical system of officials, prefects, county chiefs, country magistrates, and clerks. §REF§ (Zhang 2011, 63) Wei-Bin Zhang. 2011. <i>The Rise and Fall of China's Last Dynasty: The Deepening of the Chinese Servility</i>. Hauppage, NY: Nova Science Publishers. §REF§ In the early Qing years, provinces were ruled by high ranking officials who were typically of Manchu descent. §REF§ (Hsu 2006, 415) Cho-yun Hsu. 2006. <i>China: A New Cultural History</i>. New York: Columbia University Press. §REF§ <br>The territory of the Qing empire was more than double that of the Ming. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 1) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Tibetans, Uighurs, Muslims, a number of Mongol groups, Burmese, Thais, and indigenous Taiwanese were incorporated into the Chinese empire. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 1) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>Three Qing emperors - Kangxi (1662-1722 CE), Yongzheng (1723-1735 CE), and Qianlong (1736-1795 CE) - are historically known as great rulers. During their reigns, China was extremely prosperous. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ Qianlong is famous for leading ten military expeditions, including campaigns in Taiwan, Burma, Vietnam and Nepal. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>Based on Chinese census and registration counts, the population of China in 1749 CE was about 177.5 million. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 4) Judith Banister. 1987. <i>China's Changing Population</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§ The following century was one of extremely rapid population growth, and by 1851 the population had reached 431.9 million people. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 3-4) Judith Banister. 1987. <i>China's Changing Population</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§ Historian James Z. Gao writes that the area within the Qing court's 'sphere of influence' at its peak was 13.1 million square kilometres'. §REF§ (Gao 2009, xxxvi) James Z. Gao. 2009. <i>Historical Dictionary of Modern China (1800-1949)</i>. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§ <br>While the Qing period is not well known for poetry, painting and porcelain as previous periods are, print journalism, theatre and novels flourished under the Qing emperors. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 2) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-17T15:40:34.789180Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 643, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "While the following quote does not give an explicit example of societal violence, the quote does suggest that there was societal hostility towards minority faiths. “Third, minority communities faced some sanction from certain strata of the Shi’i hierarchy. The level and ferocity of the sanction varied, depending on the status of the community concerned (the Baha’i experience, for example, was different from that of Iranian Jews under Qajar rule) and the characters of the clergy involved, but all did face restrictive measures enacted either by the state under clergy pressure, or by rogue individuals outside of local and national control.” §REF§ (Gleave 2005, 11). Gleave, Robert. 2005 ‘Religion and Society in Qajar Iran: An Introduction.’ In Religion and Society in Qajar Iran. Edited by Robert Gleave. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EGMITHFH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EGMITHFH </b></a> §REF§ “By the late eighth century, during the early Qajar period, they had become a demoralise and predominantly poor group. The Qajar kings and government officials were usually oblivious to the plight of the minorities, leaving them at the mercy of local governments or authorities. Jews were typically harassed at tax time in order to extract funds beyond the jizya; some merchants sought to eliminate Jewish rivals by falsely accusing them and running up unpaid debts; at times, minor numbers of the clergy incited sentiments against Jews to increase their own following.” […] “The major mujtahids, it must be noted, were rarely directly involved in persecutions and occasional would rescue the victims and intervene in quiet the frenzy of the mob which attacked them. However, among these mujtahids, true protectors of the minorities were still quite rare. In this atmosphere, the new Babi and Baha’i converts and the Jews were often the targets of harsh treatment by Muslims. While the mullas were the culprits and the government turned a blind eye to most incidents, the principal protectors, if any, were foreigners.” […] “Non-Muslims were easy targets and the Jews were the smallest and most defenceless of the religious minorities in Iran. The Armenians and other Christians fared comparatively well, since representatives of European countries strongly protected their Christian brethren. Though the Zoroastrians had also been severely persecuted in the past, at this time because of their concentration in areas of British influence and because of the influence of the Parsees under the British Raj, they enjoyed some protection as well.” […] “By the last decade of the nineteenth century, however, persecution of the Jews was quite common, although its degree depended on the local authority, the power of sympathetic clergy or the severity of the accusation. With no reliable domestic sympathisers and no foreign protectors, the Jews were indeed quite vulnerable.” […] “Also in Hamadan, the Jews were active in the bazaar and by the turn of the century they controlled the imported textile trade of Iran. Consequently, there were a number of wealthy Jewish merchants there. However, in spite of the business relationships, or maybe because of them, occasional conflicts and incidents of persecution could not be prevented.” […] “On 24 September 1892, news arrived in London via Baghdad that a clergyman named Akhund Mulla ‘Abd Allah had ordered the massacre of the Jews in Hamadan and the pillage of their property. The immediate intervention of coreligionists in London and Paris was request. The details soon became clear: a mob had attacked the Jewish community of Hamadan, demanding their death or conversion. The Jews barricaded themselves in their houses.” […] “Habib Levi writes that earlier that year [1892], a Jewish girl in Hamadan was kidnapped by Muslims, forcefully converted and married to a Muslim by Akhund Mullah ‘Abd Allah, who had recently come to that city.” […] “His [Akhund Mullah ‘Abd Allah] main activity was to curse Babis, Sufis and Shaykhis, all of who he considered najis (ritually unclean), and, to gain attention, he instigated attacks on the Shaykhis, Babis and Jews.” […] “After his initial attacks on the Shaykhis, Mulla ‘Abd Allah turned against the Jews. He told his group to round up the Jews and make them wear a patch. The mob attacked their houses and shops and told the Jews that their release could only come by their death or conversion.” […] “Jewish organisations abroad expressed their fear that such incidents might spread to other areas of Iran. Their fears were warranted, as unrest flared up in Yazd and Shiraz, directed against Jews and Zoroastrians.” […] “Less than two years after this, once again anti-Jewish sentiments emerged. Complaining that the Jewish fabric sellers in Tehran were selling their goods at a lower price and thus taking their profits, the Muslim merchants closed the bazaar and anti-Jewish disturbances broke out.” §REF§ (Sahim 2005, 293, 294 -295, 299, 303) Sahmi, Haideh. 2005 ‘Jews of Iran in the Qajar Period: Persecution and Perseverance.’ In Religion and Society in Qajar Iran. Edited by Robert Gleave. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MJGC2IH2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MJGC2IH2 </b></a> §REF§ “Baha’allah was born Mirza Husayn ‘Ali Nuri in 1817 in Tehran, the son of a high Iranian government official. He joined the millenarian Babi movement in 1844. When it was suppressed by the Qajar state and the Shi’ite clergy he was branded a heretic. In 1850 the leader of the movement, ‘Ali Muhammad Shirazi, the Bab, was executed, and as a result in 1852, a cabal of disgruntled Babis in the capital made an unsuccessful attempt to assassinate the Shah.” §REF§ (Cole 2005, 312-312) Cole, Juan R.I. 2005. ‘The Evolution of Charismatic Authority in the Baha’i Faith (1863-1912).’ In Religion and Society in Qajar Iran. Edited by Robert Gleave. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MDB6MWQU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MDB6MWQU </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 509, "name": "IrQajar", "start_year": 1794, "end_year": 1925, "long_name": "Qajar", "new_name": "ir_qajar_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Qajar Dynasty was in place in Iran from 1794-1925 CE following a 50-year struggle between Qajar tribal leaders for the throne from 1747. Eventually Aqa Mohammad Khan Qajar (c.1742-c.1797) was crowned in 1796 and founded this dynasty. §REF§ (Ghani 2000, 1) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qaja Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London. §REF§ <br>By 1900 CE this polity had assumed what is now modern Iranian borders, and the territory had decreased from approximately 2 million km2 in 1800 to 1.6million km2 in 1900. The population however had increased from approximately 6 million to 10 million people by 1900 §REF§ (Martin 2005, 15) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London. §REF§ , with the largest settlement, Tehran, holding about 210,000 inhabitants.Settlement hierarchies were similar to previous polities, and included the capital city, other large regional cities, towns and villages. Although there was some centralisation of power, communication and bureaucratic reach was limited, and the Shah relied on the cooperation of many groups to keep administration running and by 1903 there was a movement calling for political reform. §REF§ (Martin 2005, 13-14) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London. §REF§ §REF§ (Ghani 2000, 7) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London. §REF§ <br>In 1851 the first institution of higher education, the polytechnic institute Dar ul-Funun which offered studies in medicine, engineering, geology, and military sciences, was founded by Prime Minister Amir Kabir. §REF§ (Maranlou 2016, 144-145) Sahar Maranlou. Modernization Prospects For Legal Education In Iran. Mutaz M Qafisheh. Stephen A Rosenbaum. eds. 2016. Experimental Legal Education in a Globalized World: The Middle East and Beyond. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Newcastle upon Tyne. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }