Soc Vio Freq Rel Grp List
A viewset for viewing and editing Social Violence Against Religious Groups.
GET /api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?format=api&ordering=-id
{ "count": 222, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/rt/frequency-of-societal-violence-against-religious-groups/?format=api&ordering=-id&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 661, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-06-10T10:39:50.736548Z", "modified_date": "2024-06-13T10:01:19.743880Z", "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "never", "polity": { "id": 15, "name": "MxPostM", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1426, "long_name": "Middle Postclassic Basin of Mexico", "new_name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_10", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Middle Postclassic (c. 1200-1426 CE). By this time, Tula no longer held sway over the region, and had been replaced by several city-states (altepetl). Documents written much later record the dynastic histories and conflicts between these city-states; toward the very end of this period, they came to form growing confederations, paving the way for the Aztec empire. §REF§ (Evans 2012: 123-124) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X</a>. §REF§ Major centres such as Azcapotzalco, Texcoco, or Cholula likely had between 20,000 and 30,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§ Each altepetl was ruled by a king (tlatoani) and a council of nobles. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 449) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 27, "name": "Basin of Mexico", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-99.130000000000", "latitude": "19.430000000000", "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico", "nga_code": "MX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": { "id": 82, "text": "a new_comment_text" }, "private_comment": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 660, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-06-10T10:37:44.864555Z", "modified_date": "2024-06-13T09:40:21.811566Z", "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "never", "polity": { "id": 16, "name": "MxAztec", "start_year": 1427, "end_year": 1526, "long_name": "Aztec Empire", "new_name": "mx_aztec_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Late Postclassic period, when the Aztecs or Mexica rose to power (c. 1427-1526 CE). The Aztec Empire was born from the \"Triple Alliance\" between the city-states (altepetl) of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan, who agreed to collaborate on campaign of territorial expansion and share the resulting tribute and tax payments. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 449-451) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q</a>. §REF§ Within a century, the three cities came to control a significant portion of Northern Mesoamerica, the main exception being the West, which, despite some military successes on the part of the Triple Alliance early on, largely remained under the control of the Tarascans. §REF§ (Evans 2012: 125) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X</a>. §REF§ <br>As the empire grew, so did the power of Tenochtitlan, which became the de-facto administrative capital, whose ruler came to hold the title huey tlatoani (“high king”). Tenochtitlan's power was strongest over the empire's central provinces, where the Aztecs ruled through governors, judges, tax collectors and other officials that they appointed themselves. For the \"outer\" provinces, the Aztecs limited themselves to targeting major centres, where, again, they appointed their governors and administrative officials. Finally, the Aztecs secured their power over \"frontier\" provinces by guaranteeing military protection from external foes, in exchange for \"gifts\" of soldiers and prestige goods. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 455-457) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q</a>. §REF§ <br>By the time of Spanish conquest in the 1520s, Tenochtitlan likely housed between 150,000 and 250,000 people, §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§ perhaps even 3,000. §REF§ (De Rioja 2017: 220) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GC3T83JD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GC3T83JD</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 27, "name": "Basin of Mexico", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-99.130000000000", "latitude": "19.430000000000", "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico", "nga_code": "MX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": { "id": 77, "text": "a new_comment_text" }, "private_comment": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 659, "year_from": 1150, "year_to": 1213, "description": "\"It is curious[...] that the reign of the king heralded for his emphasis on justice [i.e. Louis IX] should have seen major incidents of popular attack on the Jews. Earlier, only the attack on the Jewish community of Rouen during the First Crusade disturbed the pattern of adequate protection of Jews from popular hostility. The Crusades of the twelfth and early thirteenth centuries passed without serious incident in northern France. The violence suffered by northern French Jewry was, in every instance, the result of governmental initiative, rather than an outpouring of popular sentiment. Now, during the reign of that king famed for his commitment to the eradication of violence, the Jews began to feel the sting of popular fury.\"§REF§(Chazan 2019: 134) Chazan, R. 2019. Medieval Jewry in Northern France. Johns Hopkins University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/jewry/titleCreatorYear/items/TRF47P7C/item-list§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": "2024-02-27T14:47:35.274143Z", "modified_date": "2024-02-27T14:47:35.274157Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 458, "name": "FrCaptL", "start_year": 1150, "end_year": 1328, "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Capetian", "new_name": "fr_capetian_k_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "In the history of France the Late Capetian period (1150-1328 CE) was a character-defining period of administrative centralization and demographic expansion.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Before Philip II (r. 1180-1223 CE), government was very simple and closely linked to the king's court, which was still itinerant, moving wherever the king went.§REF§(Clark and Henneman 1995, 1317) Clark, William W., and John Bell Henneman, Jr. 1995. “Paris.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1314-30. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HS8644XK\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HS8644XK</a> §REF§ At the core of the French king's government were a few major officials with household titles (chancellor, seneschal, butler, chamberlain and constable).§REF§(Bradbury 2013, 249) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E</a> §REF§ From the 12th century onwards, these positions were the preserve of the aristocracy.§REF§(Bradbury 2013, 249) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E</a> §REF§§REF§(Pegues 1995, 1333) Pegues, Franklin J. 1995. “Parlement de Paris.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1332-33. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HHFUSQER\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HHFUSQER</a> §REF§<br>Philip II was likewise surrounded by a group of close counsellors,§REF§(Bradbury 2013, 249) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E</a> §REF§ but he also laid some of the foundations of a more formal administrative system.§REF§(Spufford 2006, 67) Spufford, Peter. 2006. Power and Profit: The Merchant in Medieval Europe. London: Thames and Hudson. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N7ZCQTEW\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N7ZCQTEW</a> §REF§ More than ever, government activity was recorded in writing; registers and government records for finance and justice were placed in a dedicated archive.§REF§(Bradbury 2013, 248-49) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E</a> §REF§ The clergy of the Christian Church, which had long provided a pool of 'educated, literature and numerate subjects', continued to be a vital resource for the government and administration, while the Knights Templar military order advised and under Philip II controlled the treasury from the Paris Temple.§REF§(Martin 2011) Martin, Sean. 2011. The Knights Templar: The History and Myths of the Legendary Military Order. Harpenden: Pocket Essentials. Seshat URL:<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/S2RA6VRR\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/S2RA6VRR</a> §REF§§REF§(Bradbury 2013, 249) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E</a> §REF§ However, an indication of the increasing specialization of central government, men of lesser status, such as marshals, were increasingly often appointed to important official positions.§REF§(Bradbury 2013, 249) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E</a> §REF§ The first truly professional administration in Paris dates from about 1250 CE§REF§(Pegues 1995, 1333) Pegues, Franklin J. 1995. “Parlement de Paris.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1332-33. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HHFUSQER\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HHFUSQER</a> §REF§ and included distinct departments for finance, justice, the chancery and the treasury, housed within the Royal Palace on the Île de la Cité.§REF§(Spufford 2006, 68) Spufford, P. 2006. Power and Profit: The Merchant in Medieval Europe. Thames and Hudson. London.§REF§<br>The power of the royal centre over the regions (for instance, the power of the French king to make laws binding across the whole of his territory) steadily increased during the Late Capetian period.§REF§(Pegues 1995, 1007-08) Pegues, Franklin J. 1995. “Law and Justice.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1005-11. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UH73VNTJ\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UH73VNTJ</a> §REF§ Seneschals who had previously served as the senior officials in the households of dukes, barons, and counts were generally retained but now became royal appointees.§REF§(Henneman, Jr. 1995, 1645) Henneman, Jr., John Bell. 1995. “Seneschal.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1645. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H7UJDBAS\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H7UJDBAS</a> §REF§ From the reign of Louis VIII (1223-1226 CE), apanages were carved out in peripheral regions and placed under the control of the sons of the ruler.§REF§(Suarez 1995, 97) Suarez, Pedro J. 1995. “Apanage.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 97-98. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZVMB3BUD\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZVMB3BUD</a> §REF§<br>From the 11th to the 14th century CE, the French population almost quadrupled from about 4 to 15 million.§REF§(Percy, Jr. 1995, 1416) Percy, Jr., William A. 1995. “Population and Demography.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1415-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM</a> §REF§ The population of Paris may have grown from about 25,000 people in 1200 CE to 210,000 in 1328 CE.§REF§(Percy, Jr. 1995, 1416) Percy, Jr., William A. 1995. “Population and Demography.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1415-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 658, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "No discussion of societal violence against religious groups was found in the sources consulted. Given the apparent religious uniformity of the Iban at this time, it seems reasonable to infer the absence of violence of any type specifically directed at minorities. “Some differences certainly exist, but those who know the Iban well are constantly impressed by the homogenous quality of their culture. Knowing that the social order and customary law are rooted in Iban religion, A. J. N. Richards, at that time Resident of the Second Division, decided in 1961 to convene in Simanggang a meeting of traditional religious leaders to discuss the standardization of Second Division (Iban) law, the formal core of the Iban way of life… After some initial hesitation, the meeting was remarkable not only for the light thrown on Iban religion but for the constructive, relaxed atmosphere which prevailed, and the direction which enabled the speakers to make their individual contributions. It was not intended to produce a canon of Iban belief, but in discussing the religious assumptions which underlie customary law, the delegates spoke at some length on most aspects of their religion and one particularly interesting conclusion was the degree of uniformity which this discussion revealed. Of course there were local variations, differing details of expression and emphasis, but, considering the distances involved and the difficulty in communication, the tradition remained remarkably uniform.” §REF§ (Jensen, 1974, 56) Jensen, Erik. 1974. The Iban and Their Religion. London: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CVIQZD7C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CVIQZD7C </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "never", "polity": { "id": 154, "name": "IdBrokL", "start_year": 1841, "end_year": 1987, "long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial", "new_name": "id_iban_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kapuasi basin is located in Western Kalimantan, in Borneo, and has long been inhabited by the Iban or Dayak. These are a river people whose culture emphasizes individual resourcefulness, egalitarianism, personal mobility, and opening new land for settlement. §REF§ (Sandin 1980, xi) Sandin, Benedict. 1980. Iban Adat And Augury. Penang: Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia for School of Comparative Social Sciences. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3I4RXPUZ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3I4RXPUZ</a>. §REF§ The Iban in fact trace their origins to the Kapuasi basin, and it was from there that they aggressively expanded their territory between the 17th and the 19th centuries, practising headhunting and slavery. §REF§ (Sutlive and Beierle 1995) Sutlive Jr., Vinson H., and John Beierle. 1995. “Culture Summary: Iban.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oc06-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oc06-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B4RV87D4\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B4RV87D4</a>. §REF§ In 1841, Iban expansion was checked by British adventurer James Brooke, of the so-called Brooke Raj. This pushed some Iban westward, while others became part of the Raj itself. The governed Iban communities were relatively autonomous in the regulation of local matters, although a colonial administrative structure was superimposed onto the Iban system. The White Rajahs sought to suppress infighting and mobilize Iban communities for their own military interests. §REF§ (Gomes 1911, 77) Gomes, Edwin H. 1911. Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo: A Record of Intimate Association with the Natives of the Bornean Jungles. Philadelphia, PA: J. B. Lippincott & Co. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N6JNADA8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N6JNADA8</a>. §REF§ With the exception of a period of Japanese control during the Second World War, §REF§ (Andaya and Andaya 2016, 261-68) Andaya, Barbara Watson, and Leonard Y. Andaya. 2016. A History of Malaysia. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VXPWW92R\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VXPWW92R</a>. §REF§ the British maintained control over this particular region up until Brunei's independence in 1984. §REF§ (Andaya 2008, 455) Andaya, Barbara Watson. 1992. “Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries.” In The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. 1: From Early Times to C. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 402-59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UQTUBXM2\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UQTUBXM2</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Before the establishment of the Brooke Raj, there were no permanent leaders among the Iban: instead, groups of family leaders directed the affairs of each house. Warriors, bards, augurs and other specialists could all become men of influence. James Brooke, as Rajah of Sarawak, created political positions, such as headman, regional chief and paramount chief, to better control Iban society, particularly in terms of extracting taxes and suppressing headhunting. Iban political organization also changed profoundly with the creation of permanent political positions and the establishment of political parties in the early 1960s. §REF§ (Sutlive and Beierle 1995) Sutlive Jr., Vinson H., and John Beierle. 1995. “Culture Summary: Iban.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oc06-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oc06-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B4RV87D4\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B4RV87D4</a>. §REF§ <br>It seems that the Iban lived in autonomous longhouse communities of about 500 inhabitants each, both before and probably for some time after the imposition of Brooke Raj authority. §REF§ (Sutlive and Beierle 1995) Sutlive Jr., Vinson H., and John Beierle. 1995. “Culture Summary: Iban.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oc06-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oc06-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B4RV87D4\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B4RV87D4</a>. §REF§ More recently, we know that the 1985 census for Sarawak estimates the number of Iban at around 439,000 people. §REF§ (Davison and Sutlive 1991, 158) Davison, Julian, Vinson H. Sutlive, and Vinson H. Sutlive. 1991. “Children of Nising: Images of Headhunting and Male Sexuality in Iban Ritual and Oral Literature.” In Female and Male in Borneo: Contributions and Challenges to Gender Studies, 153-230. Williamsburg, VA: Borneo Research Council. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5U8X7Q5P\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5U8X7Q5P</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 19, "name": "Kapuasi Basin", "subregion": "Indonesia", "longitude": "112.405971685000", "latitude": "0.774120813650", "capital_city": "Borneo", "nga_code": "KAL", "fao_country": "Indonesia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 42, "name": "Archipelago", "subregions_list": "Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 657, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "The following quote seems to imply that people followed traditional beliefs, new cults, and Christianity; this in turn suggests a high degree of \"tolerance\". ’The traditional beliefs of the Orokaiva, though in many respects vague and locally variable, focused primarily on the \"spirits of the dead\" and their influence on the living. The Orokaiva had no high god. Formerly, they were animists, believing in the existence of souls (ASISI) in humans, plants, and animals. The taro spirit was of particular importance and was the inspiration and foundation of the Taro Cult. The Orokaiva have been swept recently by a series of new cults, indicative of their religious adaptability in the face of fresh experience. Mission influence is strong in the Northern District. Religious training is provided almost exclusively by the Anglican church, although mission influence has not totally eradicated traditional beliefs, producing an air of mysticism about the resultant religious system.’ §REF§ Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/V2AK2FR7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: V2AK2FR7 </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "never", "polity": { "id": 446, "name": "PgOrokL", "start_year": 1884, "end_year": 1942, "long_name": "Orokaiva - Colonial", "new_name": "pg_orokaiva_colonial", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Northern Province of Papua New Guinea has long been inhabited by the Orokaiva. This is an umbrella term used to describe a number of culturally similar groups, including the Aiga, Binandele, Hunjara, Mambare, and Wasida. §REF§ (Reay 1953, 110) Reay, Marie. 1953. “Social Control amongst the Orokaiva.” Oceania 24 (2): 110-18. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FQKM3Z7S\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FQKM3Z7S</a>. §REF§ Though these groups did not have an inclusive name for themselves until Westerners coined the label 'Orokaiva', they distinguished among themselves as the river (<i>umo-ke</i>), saltwater (<i>eva'embo</i>), and inland (<i>periho</i>) peoples. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Christopher S. Latham and John Beierle. 2004. Culture Summary: Orokaiva. New Haven: HRAF. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000</a>. §REF§ The Orokaiva were primarily subsistence farmers in the period under consideration (1884-1942 CE). §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7</a>. §REF§ The first known contact with Europeans occurred in the 18th century, but the Orokaiva formally became part of a wider polity in 1888, when the British annexed the island. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Orokaiva lacked central authority and hereditary leadership. The closest thing they had to leaders were big men (<i>embo dambo</i>) and elders, who commanded the respect of their neighbours due to their personal qualities, including their ability to make wise decisions and their skill in organizing ceremonies. However, they still lacked authorities with the power to issue sanctions. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7</a>. §REF§ <br>The number of Orokaiva at the time of Western contact is unknown. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7</a>. §REF§ In the early 20th century, the anthropologist Francis Edgar Williams estimated that the Orokaiva numbered around 20,000 people. §REF§ (Williams and Murray 1930, 7) Williams, Francis Edgar. 1930. Orokaiva Society. London: Humphrey Milford on behalf of Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KUPJA2X4\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KUPJA2X4</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 35, "name": "Oro PNG", "subregion": "New Guinea", "longitude": "148.193783000000", "latitude": "-8.590711000000", "capital_city": "Oro", "nga_code": "NG", "fao_country": "Papua New Guinea", "world_region": "Oceania-Australia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 29, "name": "New Guinea", "subregions_list": "New Guinea", "mac_region": { "id": 8, "name": "Oceania-Australia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 656, "year_from": 935, "year_to": 969, "description": "“Ibn Tulun’s condition worsened. Muslims, Christians and Jews, including women and children, converged separately upon the flank of the Muqattam to implore God to save him. […] Indeed, a substantial portion of the wealth generated in Egypt and Syria could have been produced only because of the harmonious division of economic activities among the diverse communities. […]In the overpopulated cities, tensions between religious communities led to grave incidents. Between 348/960 and 351/963, the Ikhshidid navy was destroyed by the Byzantine fleet. This catastrophe provoked support for a jihad in Egypt, accompanied by spontaneous assaults on Christians by Muslims.” §REF§ (Bianquis 1998, 103-119) Bianquis, Thierry. 1998. ‘Autonomous Egypt from Ibn Tûlûn to Kāfûr, 868-969’. In The Cambridge History of Egypt. Edited by Carl Petry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J7AB3ZRW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: J7AB3ZRW </b></a>§REF§“Egypt was a Sunni country, and hostilities against the Shi’I community occurred during the Ikhshidid period.” §REF§ (Lev 1997, 126) Lev, Yaacov. ‘Regime, Army, and Society in Medieval Egypt, 9th-12th Centuries’. In War and Society in the Eastern Mediterranean 7th to 15th Centuries. Edited by Michael Whitby. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MFR3XX79\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MFR3XX79 </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 361, "name": "EgTulIk", "start_year": 868, "end_year": 969, "long_name": "Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period", "new_name": "eg_thulunid_ikhshidid", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Egypt in the years between 868 and 969 CE is notable for frequent changes in rulers, including three separate regimes in just over a century: the Tulunid Dynasty, the Abbasid Restoration Period, and the Ikshidid Dynasty, which eventually gave way to the Fatimid Caliphate. The Tulunids were a Turkic Dynasty who established an independent rule over Egypt and parts of Syria during a time of instability caused by infighting in the Abbasid court in Damascus. There was a notable 'flowering' of the arts under the Tulunid rulers, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 26) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ but the highs and lows of this era of instability are best encapsulated by the reign of Khumarawayh. Although Egypt saw 'peace and prosperity' under his rule, it has been argued that his extravagant lifestyle and 'lavish' spending on building projects and the maintenance of a large standing army 'overtaxed the state's resources'. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ 'When Khumarawayh was murdered by one of his slaves in 896, the treasury was reportedly empty'. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Egypt during the Tulunid-Ikshidid period has been described as 'an autonomous state, albeit under Abbasid suzerainty'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 26) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ When Ahmad ibn Tulun was appointed prefect or governor of Egypt in 868 CE, it was a province of the Abbasid Caliphate. Tulun, who was of Turkish ancestry, was recruited from the military §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 24) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Middleton, ed. 2015, 966) J. Middleton, ed. 2015. <i>World Monarchies and Dynasties</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ and 'never formally repudiated Abbasid authority'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 24) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ He took advantage of a revolt in Palestine and Syria to build up a new Egyptian army of Turkish, Nubian, and Greek mercenaries and slaves, which he paid for by seizing control of the revenue of Egypt from the Abbasid-appointed financial director in 871 CE. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ Ibn Tulun also annexed Syria. §REF§ (Esposito, ed. 2003, 130) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>With his new army and the Abbasids distracted by unrest in the Levant, Ibn Tulun worked to increase Egyptian autonomy from the caliph in Baghdad; §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ he stopped sending taxes to the Abbasids and established a new capital at al-Qatai, at the neck of the Nile Delta near Fustat. §REF§ (Middleton, ed. 2015, 966) J. Middleton, ed. 2015. <i>World Monarchies and Dynasties</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ This de facto arrangement became official in 886 CE, when a treaty with the Abbasid Dynasty decreed that Khumarawayh and his successors would govern Egypt for a term of three decades §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ - although Egypt would in fact be under Abbasid control again from 905 to 935 CE. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 34) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ After the Ikshidids gained control of Egypt under Muhammad ibn Tughj (935‒946 CE), §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ the Abbasids, in a similar treaty in 939 CE, granted the governorship of Egypt and Syria to 'the Ikshid and his heirs' for 30 years. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br>The Tulunid governing apparatus included a vizier, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 35) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ who, after the administrative reforms of Ibn Tulun, §REF§ (Esposito, ed. 2003, 130) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ apparently ran a competent bureaucracy that oversaw huge spending projects. Ibn Tulun built an aqueduct and a <i>maristan</i> (hospital), which cost 60,000 dinars. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 26) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Founded in 873 CE, the hospital was the first of its kind in Egypt. There was probably a functioning postal system (the Egyptian section of the Abbasid <i>barid</i>). Luxuries were never far away for the affluent elites, who spent their riches freely: Khumarawayh converted the <i>maydan</i> (city square) into a lush garden in the Mesopotamian tradition, while in the Ikshidid period Kafur's palace near the Birkat Qarun cost a monumental 100,000 dinars. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 27, 34) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>The population of Egypt and the Levant at this time may have totalled 6.5 million, §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 138, 229) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Allen Lane. §REF§ and the largest city, Fustat in Egypt, had perhaps 150,000 residents. §REF§ (Modelski 2003, 55) George Modelski. 2003. <i>World Cities -3000 to 2000</i>. Washington, DC: Faros. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 655, "year_from": 868, "year_to": 934, "description": "“Ibn Tulun’s condition worsened. Muslims, Christians and Jews, including women and children, converged separately upon the flank of the Muqattam to implore God to save him. […] Indeed, a substantial portion of the wealth generated in Egypt and Syria could have been produced only because of the harmonious division of economic activities among the diverse communities. […]In the overpopulated cities, tensions between religious communities led to grave incidents. Between 348/960 and 351/963, the Ikhshidid navy was destroyed by the Byzantine fleet. This catastrophe provoked support for a jihad in Egypt, accompanied by spontaneous assaults on Christians by Muslims.” §REF§ (Bianquis 1998, 103-119) Bianquis, Thierry. 1998. ‘Autonomous Egypt from Ibn Tûlûn to Kāfûr, 868-969’. In The Cambridge History of Egypt. Edited by Carl Petry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J7AB3ZRW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: J7AB3ZRW </b></a>§REF§“Egypt was a Sunni country, and hostilities against the Shi’I community occurred during the Ikhshidid period.” §REF§ (Lev 1997, 126) Lev, Yaacov. ‘Regime, Army, and Society in Medieval Egypt, 9th-12th Centuries’. In War and Society in the Eastern Mediterranean 7th to 15th Centuries. Edited by Michael Whitby. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MFR3XX79\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MFR3XX79 </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 361, "name": "EgTulIk", "start_year": 868, "end_year": 969, "long_name": "Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period", "new_name": "eg_thulunid_ikhshidid", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Egypt in the years between 868 and 969 CE is notable for frequent changes in rulers, including three separate regimes in just over a century: the Tulunid Dynasty, the Abbasid Restoration Period, and the Ikshidid Dynasty, which eventually gave way to the Fatimid Caliphate. The Tulunids were a Turkic Dynasty who established an independent rule over Egypt and parts of Syria during a time of instability caused by infighting in the Abbasid court in Damascus. There was a notable 'flowering' of the arts under the Tulunid rulers, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 26) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ but the highs and lows of this era of instability are best encapsulated by the reign of Khumarawayh. Although Egypt saw 'peace and prosperity' under his rule, it has been argued that his extravagant lifestyle and 'lavish' spending on building projects and the maintenance of a large standing army 'overtaxed the state's resources'. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ 'When Khumarawayh was murdered by one of his slaves in 896, the treasury was reportedly empty'. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Egypt during the Tulunid-Ikshidid period has been described as 'an autonomous state, albeit under Abbasid suzerainty'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 26) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ When Ahmad ibn Tulun was appointed prefect or governor of Egypt in 868 CE, it was a province of the Abbasid Caliphate. Tulun, who was of Turkish ancestry, was recruited from the military §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 24) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Middleton, ed. 2015, 966) J. Middleton, ed. 2015. <i>World Monarchies and Dynasties</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ and 'never formally repudiated Abbasid authority'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 24) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ He took advantage of a revolt in Palestine and Syria to build up a new Egyptian army of Turkish, Nubian, and Greek mercenaries and slaves, which he paid for by seizing control of the revenue of Egypt from the Abbasid-appointed financial director in 871 CE. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ Ibn Tulun also annexed Syria. §REF§ (Esposito, ed. 2003, 130) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>With his new army and the Abbasids distracted by unrest in the Levant, Ibn Tulun worked to increase Egyptian autonomy from the caliph in Baghdad; §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ he stopped sending taxes to the Abbasids and established a new capital at al-Qatai, at the neck of the Nile Delta near Fustat. §REF§ (Middleton, ed. 2015, 966) J. Middleton, ed. 2015. <i>World Monarchies and Dynasties</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ This de facto arrangement became official in 886 CE, when a treaty with the Abbasid Dynasty decreed that Khumarawayh and his successors would govern Egypt for a term of three decades §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ - although Egypt would in fact be under Abbasid control again from 905 to 935 CE. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 34) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ After the Ikshidids gained control of Egypt under Muhammad ibn Tughj (935‒946 CE), §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ the Abbasids, in a similar treaty in 939 CE, granted the governorship of Egypt and Syria to 'the Ikshid and his heirs' for 30 years. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br>The Tulunid governing apparatus included a vizier, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 35) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ who, after the administrative reforms of Ibn Tulun, §REF§ (Esposito, ed. 2003, 130) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ apparently ran a competent bureaucracy that oversaw huge spending projects. Ibn Tulun built an aqueduct and a <i>maristan</i> (hospital), which cost 60,000 dinars. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 26) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Founded in 873 CE, the hospital was the first of its kind in Egypt. There was probably a functioning postal system (the Egyptian section of the Abbasid <i>barid</i>). Luxuries were never far away for the affluent elites, who spent their riches freely: Khumarawayh converted the <i>maydan</i> (city square) into a lush garden in the Mesopotamian tradition, while in the Ikshidid period Kafur's palace near the Birkat Qarun cost a monumental 100,000 dinars. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 27, 34) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>The population of Egypt and the Levant at this time may have totalled 6.5 million, §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 138, 229) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Allen Lane. §REF§ and the largest city, Fustat in Egypt, had perhaps 150,000 residents. §REF§ (Modelski 2003, 55) George Modelski. 2003. <i>World Cities -3000 to 2000</i>. Washington, DC: Faros. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 654, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Here, it seems, the Jews lived on conspicuously friendly terms with their neighbors and engaged in all branches of commerce without opposition.” §REF§ (Roth 1969, 69) Roth, Cecil. 1969. The History of the Jews of Italy. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3GH3BFJQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3GH3BFJQ </b></a>§REF§“Yet there is evidence of real interfaith conversation, on various levels, where we may glimpse something closer to the actual debate needed to clarify the differences between ‘Judaic’ and ‘Christian’ options. In the Middle Ages, Jews lived among Christians, in the same towns and cities, and had commercial and conversational dealings with them.” §REF§ (Evans 2007, 24) Evans, GR. 2007. The Church in the Early Middle Ages. London: IB Taurus. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZVMBWN5E\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZVMBWN5E </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 188, "name": "ItStPet", "start_year": 711, "end_year": 904, "long_name": "Republic of St Peter I", "new_name": "it_st_peter_rep_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Papal State originated in the Patrimony of St. Peter, which initially included over four hundred estates, many of them in Sicily. These came from donations from wealthy Christians, whose philanthropy accelerated after Emperor Constantine. §REF§ (Brown 2003, 206) Brown, Peter. 2003. The Rise of Western Christendom. Triumph and Diversity, 200-1000. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, Inc. §REF§ The eighth century popes called their state \"The Republic of St. Peter\". The popular name \"Papal States\" was only used from the late middle ages. §REF§ (Noble 2011, xxi) T F X Noble. 2011. The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825, University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ <br>The Republic of St Peter (711-904 CE) was under nominal Byzantine suzerainty until 781 CE when the capital of the Byzantine exarchate was at Ravenna §REF§ (Partner 1972, 9) P Partner. 1972. The Lands of St. Peter: The Papal State in the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance, University of California Press §REF§ which was connected to Rome by the thin strip of Byzantine territory running across the Appennines and through Perugia. The Pope was elected by citizens and the army - usually based on the choice of the clergy. Representatives would the certify the choice to the Exarch in Ravenna for imperial approval. The Exarch could make the choice himself in case of disagreement. §REF§ (Trevor, 1869, 113) G Trevor. 1869. Rome and Its Papal Rulers, A History of Eighteen Centuries, The Religious Tract Society, London <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://archive.org/stream/cu31924029388695#page/n127/mode/2up\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a> §REF§ <br>In 781 CE Charlemagne asserted Frankish suzerainty over the region. After this time, the years of the Byzantine Emperor's reign were no longer used for dating Papal documents or on the minting of imperial coins in the mint of Rome. §REF§ (Grierson and Blackburn 2007, 259) §REF§ During the ninth century the Papacy was released from Carolingian influence as the Frankish empire began to break up. §REF§ (Barraclough 1968, 55) Geoffrey Barraclough. 1968. <i>The Medieval Papacy</i> Norwich: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1968. §REF§ <br>This also meant that between the end of the ninth century and the 960s, the papacy had no powerful protectors outside Italy. Political power in Rome and Lazio lay in the hands of elite families, such as the Theophylacti and other powerful Roman baronial families. §REF§ (Stearns 2001 173) P Stearns. 2001. The Encyclopedia of World History. 6th Edition. James Clarke & Co Ltd. Cambridge. §REF§ <br>Papal governmental administration was small-scale but effective and organized into departments, with separate heads for the chancery and archives. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 9) P Partner. 1972. The Lands of St. Peter: The Papal State in the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance, University of California Press §REF§ Notaries were career bureaucrats with the primicerius notariorum the head of college of notaries. §REF§ (Richards 1979, 290-292) J Richards. 1979. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages, 476-752, Routledge & Kegan Paul §REF§ The governance of the wider mountainous region was characterised by small countships and marquisates centered upon a fortified <i>rocca.</i><br>The population of the polity is hard to estimate but it is likely the city of Rome lost half its population between 800 CE and 900 CE when it held a mere 40,000 people.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 1, "name": "Latium", "subregion": "Southern Europe", "longitude": "12.486948000000", "latitude": "41.890407000000", "capital_city": "Rome", "nga_code": "IT", "fao_country": "Italy", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 653, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“In the middle of the sixteenth century, however, under the stress of the threat to the Church involved in the Reformation movement in Germany, the atmosphere changed; and as a part of the Counter Reformation, a reaction set in against the Jews of the Papal States, later to spread to the whole of Italy. Yet even now there was among the Italian people a basic kindliness; and even now, the long acclimatization of the Jews in the country attuned them completely to the Italian outlook and Italian cultural life. Thus, in a certain sense, Renaissance conceptions prevailed even in the ghetto. “ §REF§ (Roth, 9) Roth, Cecil. 1959. The Jews in the Renaissance. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HS7WMJ82\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HS7WMJ82 </b></a>§REF§“So in fact Jews and Christians could fraternise at all social levels, over independent commerce, moneylending, second-hand dealing; over Jewish Medical expertise, and language scholarship; over medicinal and love-magic techniques, and sex. Some of these common interests could concern the Inquisitors.” §REF§ (Black, 142) Black, Christopher. 2009. The Italian Inquisition. New Haven: Yale University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SUH4PNB5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SUH4PNB5 </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 193, "name": "ItPapM2", "start_year": 1648, "end_year": 1809, "long_name": "Papal States - Medieval Period II", "new_name": "it_papal_state_4", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The papacy was victorious in the Second War of Castro (1649). This was only the denouement of a minor episode, however, and in general the Papal State was a political fossil, undertaking no reforms in the spirit of the Enlightenment, and increasingly irrelevant to European affairs. §REF§ (Symcox 2002, 118) John M Marino, ed. 2002. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ <br>The first part of this period marked the definitive eclipse of the papacy as a power of any reckoning in international relations. Pope Urban VIII had annexed the Duchy of Urbino to the Papal States in 1631, thereby alienating the papacy from the other Italian powers. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 9-10) Dominc Sella. 1997. <i>Italy in the Seventeeth Century.</i> London & New York: Longman. §REF§ The first war of Castro broke out in 1641 when Urban declared war on the Farnese, the ruling family of Parma, over the poor finances of Castro, a small fiefdom held by the Farnese just north of Rome. Tuscany, Modena and Venice joined the Farnese to resist the papacy, and inflicted humiliating defeats on the papal armies. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 10) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ In 1644, the French imposed a peace settlement. Although Pope Innocent X's troops took Castro and razed it to the ground in 1649, the papacy was now isolated internationally and increasingly irrelevant. The papacy took no part in the Peace of Westphalia, and it was also not consulted in the Franco-Spanish Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659). §REF§ (Sella 1997, 11) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ The papacy took no part in European wars for the rest of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.<br>The papacy's irrelevance internationally can be seen as part of the decline of the Spanish empire, as had benefited from Spanish protection during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. §REF§ (Dandelet 2003, 219-232) Thomas Dandelet. 2003. \"The Spanish Foundations of Late Renaissance and Baroque Rome.\" In <i>Beyond Florence. The Contours of Medieval and Early Modern Italy.</i>Paula Findlen, Michelle M. Fontaine, and Duane J. Osheim eds. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP. pp. 219-232 §REF§ The French came to dominate European affairs during the reign of Louis XIV, but the struggle for power in Europe did not seriously affect the Papal State until the turn of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Warfare ravaged the peninsula in the early eighteenth century, as the (Austrian) Habsburgs and French Bourbons battled to fill the vacuum created by Spain's gradual eclipse. §REF§ (Woolf 1979, 29) S J Woolf. 1979. <i>A History of Italy 1700-1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change.</i> 2nd Ed. London: Methuen. §REF§ These wars were external events imposed on the Italian states, and they took as little part as possible. Spanish attempts to recruit troops at Rome in the 1730s were met by serious riots, for example. §REF§ (Woolf 1979, 35) S J Woolf. 1979. <i>A History of Italy 1700-1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change.</i> 2nd Ed. London: Methuen. §REF§ The War of the Austrian Succession devastated areas of the Marches and Romagna, but the papacy, it seems, was powerless to prevent foreign armies' depredations. §REF§ (Woolf 1979, 35) S J Woolf. 1979. <i>A History of Italy 1700-1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change.</i> 2nd Ed. London: Methuen. §REF§ <br>As the eighteenth century progressed, this weakness, even impotence, became ever more marked. Clement XI in 1720 and Clement XII called for an Italian league to expel northern rulers, but these appeals were meaningless because the papacy controlled no armies worth speaking of. §REF§ (Woolf 1979, 37) S J Woolf. 1979. <i>A History of Italy 1700-1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change.</i> 2nd Ed. London: Methuen. §REF§ Thus, international relations between the papacy and the European powers during the later 18th century consisted of papal resistance to European states' attempts to restrain the power of the Church. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 68) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ This took its characteristic form in the French and Spanish expulsion of the Jesuit Order from their domains; in 1773, Pope Clement XIV suppressed the order. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 40) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ As a reward, the French restored Avignon and the Spanish Benevento to the papacy. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 42) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ <br>The papacy opposed the French Revolution from the beginning, and by 1792, there was a schism in France between Catholics who supported the Church sanctioned by the Revolutionary regime, and those who remained faithful to Rome. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 80) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ Pius VI sympathized with the Habsburgs and the revolutionary regime's enemies, and his successor was powerless in the face of Bonaparte's 1796 invasion of the peninsula. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 80-81) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ Indeed, the papal ambassador Zelada's reply to British requests for papal approval of the war against the French was the following: §REF§ (Hay 1975, 98) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ \"'It is true that there was a time when the voice of the Roman Pontiff was heard, respected, and obeyed; now...it is scarcely listened ever listened to, and never has any effect.'\" Although the British fleet had briefly protected the Papal States' coasts from the French, by 1796 the British had withdrawn. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 98) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ Napoleon did not initially invade the Papal States proper, only the Legation cities of Ravenna, Bologna, and Ferrara; in the following peace treaty, the French annexed Ravenna, Bologna, Ancona, and the right of entry to all papal ports. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 99) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ The papacy furthermore had to pay Napoleon 21 million crowns. War recommenced in 1797, and Bonaparte marched almost unopposed down the eastern coast of the peninsula, stealing whatever the papal government had not yet removed of the treasury at Loreto and forcing terms on the papacy at Tolentino in mid-February. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 101) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ Refusing to acquiesce in French domination, Pius VI was arrested in February 1798 and bundled off to prison in Valence, France.<br>The second half the 1600s was marked by a renewal of \"Christianization\" efforts, i.e., to educate the laity and ensure a stricter adherence to post-Tridentine Catholicism. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 106-115) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ The wars, famines, and epidemics between 1610 and the mid-1650s had disrupted these efforts, but there was a \"Tridentine revival\" in the second half of the century resulting in Jesuit missions to the Kingdom of Naples, and more frequent pastoral visits by bishops. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 107) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ The Inquisition, which had been institutionalized as the Roman Inquisition in the sixteenth century, was still active, although it may not have burnt as many heretics and witches as authorities north of the Alps. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 160) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ The Inquisition censored books, although it was not necessarily successful at preventing their spread. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 160) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ Pilgrimage remained popular, especially in Jubilee years (in this period, 1725, 1750, and 1775), and confraternities showed remarkable staying power, especially in the duchy of Benevento and the kingdom of Naples. Baptism and the Mass remained little changed, although parish records became a standard part of the Church's institutional machinery.<br>The seventeenth century was a period of major demographic and economic contraction, but by the mid-18th century, recovery had begun. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 47) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. <i>Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789.</i> Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§ Gross has estimated that in 1684, the Papal States' trade and payment deficit was five million <i>scudi</i>; in 1786, the Papal States' imports exceeded their exports by three times. §REF§ (Gross 1990, 88) Gross, Hanns. <i>Rome in the Age of Enlightenment: The post-Tridentine syndrome and the ancien regime.</i> Cambridge, CUP. §REF§ Rome remained what it had long been, a parasitic drain on the Agro Romano. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 15) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. <i>Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789.</i> Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§ The city consisted of a small plutocracy and a vast mass of artisans, courtiers, workers, and a major substratum of the permanently indigent; pilgrims added to the city's population and its coffers periodically. Ancona, on the other hand, experienced revived prosperity in the mid-18th century following Clement XII's decree making it a free port. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 16) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. <i>Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789.</i> Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§ Bologna's economy was in decline due to the implosion of the textile trade. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 16) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. <i>Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789.</i> Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§ An important contribution to the future demographic and economic health of Lazio was the draining of the Pontine Marshes, carried out under Popes Benedict XIV, Clement XIII, and Pius VI. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 48) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. <i>Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789.</i> Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-05-07T08:36:34.649580Z", "home_nga": { "id": 1, "name": "Latium", "subregion": "Southern Europe", "longitude": "12.486948000000", "latitude": "41.890407000000", "capital_city": "Rome", "nga_code": "IT", "fao_country": "Italy", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 39, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 652, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Yet even now there was among the Italian people a basic kindliness; and even now, the long acclimatization of the Jews in the country attuned them completely to the Italian outlook and Italian cultural life. Thus, in a certain sense, Renaissance conceptions prevailed even in the ghetto.” §REF§ (Roth, 9) Roth, Cecil. 1959. The Jews in the Renaissance. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HS7WMJ82\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HS7WMJ82 </b></a>§REF§“The personal relations between Jews and non-Jews- not excluding the aristocracy and even members of ruling families – were more intimate in the Renaissance period [in Italy] than was ever again to be the case in any land in Europe until the nineteenth century.” §REF§ (Roth, 20) Roth, Cecil. 1959. The Jews in the Renaissance. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HS7WMJ82\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HS7WMJ82 </b></a>§REF§“Jews are no longer studied simply as financiers, Hebrew teachers, and victims of Christian anti-Semitism - though they were often that - but as members of communities which, though never free of the dilemma of negotiating their relations with the dominant religion of Italy, possessed a dynamic culture of their own.” §REF§ (Peterson, 853) Peterson, David. 2000. ‘Out of the Margins: Religion and the Church in Renaissance Italy’. In Renaissance Quarterly. Vol. 53. 3. Pp. 835-879. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G4CWA22X\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G4CWA22X </b></a>§REF§“Fifteenth and sixteenth centuries brought socioeconomic prosperities to the Jews in Renaissance Italy, whose well-being incited anti-Jewish hostilities.” §REF§ (Katz, 2) Katz, Dana. 2008. The Jew in the Art of the Italian Renaissance. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XGQXHBA3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XGQXHBA3 </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Soc_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 191, "name": "ItPapRn", "start_year": 1378, "end_year": 1527, "long_name": "Papal States - Renaissance Period", "new_name": "it_papal_state_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The 1378-1527 CE period of the Papal States is known for 'Renaissance popes' who \"concentrated their efforts on protecting their Italian domain and in lavishly reconstructing the city of Rome.\" §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 386) K Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. Yale University Press. New Haven. §REF§ The Sistine Chapel, a popular symbol of the renaissance, was built between 1475-1481 CE commissioned by Sixtus IV. Goldthwaite has argued that the papacy's return to Rome in 1378 inaugurated a phase of economic growth for the Rome and its hinterland, reflecting Rome's dependence on the papacy, and not Lazio's productivity, to stimulate the economy. §REF§ (Goldthwaite 2010, 172) Richard Goldthwaite. 2010. <i>The Economy of Renaissance Florence.</i> Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University. §REF§ Before the sack of Rome in 1527 CE §REF§ (Bairoch et al 1988, 47) Paul Bairoch. Jean Batou. Pierre Chèvre. 1988. The Population of European Cities from 800 to 1850. Geneva: Droz. §REF§ the population had finally begun to grow again, from about 30,000 early in the 14th century to 55,000.<br>The Renaissance Popes attempted to systematize and unify the financial administration of the Papal State. This meant ending financial and judicial immunities, and rolling back the power of locally powerful bishops and abbots. §REF§ Partner, 385-87; Braudel, 697 §REF§ However, the vast bureaucracy the Pope oversaw was a fundamentally corrupt one, by the late 14th century founded on bribery, the sale of offices, and patronage politics. §REF§ (Martin 2002, 34) John M Marino, ed. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ During the fifteenth century, the sale of offices within the <i>curia</i> became routinized; and Peterson has estimated that under Pope Leo X (1513-1521), two thousand offices were for sale in the city of Rome alone. §REF§ (Peterson 2010, 74) John M Najemy, ed. 2010. <i>Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300-1500.</i> Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ <br>The papacy's ability to control the regions of the Papal States fluctuated dramatically during this period, especially during the Great Schism (1378-1417 CE). During the Schism, numerous ecclesiastical territories in the Papal State were seized by or alienated to secular lords. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 385) Peter Partner. 1972. The lands of Saint Peter. The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§ The 1380s and 1390s were characterized by a long and futile struggle between the Roman and Avignon popes for control of territory and finances in central and southern Italy, with the long-term result being the destabilization of central Italy and the intensified decentralization of power in the Papal State, especially in the Romagna and <i>le Marche</i>. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 371) Peter Partner. 1972. The lands of Saint Peter. The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>In general, the various lords, cities, and feudatories of the papal states were ready and willing to rebel when possible, for example, in 1375 CE. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 366-367) Peter Partner. 1972. The lands of Saint Peter. The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§ Furthermore, the lords of the petty Lords known as the Romagna were <i>de facto</i> independent for much of the late 14th and early 15th centuries. §REF§ For these petty lordships, see Larner §REF§ During the mid-15th century, King Ferrante of Naples deliberately contracted with Roman barons for them to raise mercenary bands for his service, undercutting these barons' feudal ties to the papacy. §REF§ (Mallett and Shaw 2012, 10) Michael Mallett and Christine Shaw. 2012 <i>The Italian Wars, 1494-1559: War, state and society in early modern Europe.</i> Harlow, England: Pearson. §REF§ <br>As distinct from the previous centuries, up until 1494 CE the Papal States was usually free from influence of German emperors or Spanish kings, §REF§ (Najemy 2010) John M Najemy, ed. 2010. <i>Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300-1500.</i> Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ but the drastically changed situation between 1494-1527 CE, following the French king Charles VIII's invasion of Italy. §REF§ (Ady 1975, 343-367) Denys Hay ed. 1975. <i>The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 1, "name": "Latium", "subregion": "Southern Europe", "longitude": "12.486948000000", "latitude": "41.890407000000", "capital_city": "Rome", "nga_code": "IT", "fao_country": "Italy", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }