Gov Vio Freq Rel Grp List
A viewset for viewing and editing Frequency of Governmental Violence Against Religious Groups.
GET /api/rt/frequency-of-governmental-violence-against-religious-groups/
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Evidently fearful of being found in possession of such seditious items, the owners themselves had gouged- or ground-out the offending signs which articulated Amun’s name—even within the tiniest cartouche-ovals containing the old king’s birth-name in the scarab shown here. Displays such as this, of frightened self-censorship and toadying loyalty, are ominous indicators of a general paranoia now gripping the country, attesting eloquently to the fearful character of Akhenaten’s reign as it gradually developed. Not only was the population kept in check by streets filled with pharaoh’s bully-boys—Nubians and Asiatics armed with clubs, seen everywhere in the reliefs of the period—it seems the population now had to contend with the danger of malicious informers.” §REF§ (Reeves 2004, 7) Reeves, Nicholas. 2004. ‘Who was Akhenaten?’. Fitzwilliam Museum Lecture. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DABD2XP5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DABD2XP5 </b></a> §REF§ “Although large areas of Nubia and the Near East had been dominated by the end of Thutmose III’s reign, they were not treated identically. […] There is a visual ideological program followed in the Eighteenth Dynasty, especially […] as evidenced by the amount of material found in Tutankhamun’s tomb showing the two foreign powers being literally crushed by the Pharoah. Nubians and Asiatics are often placed in symmetrical composition, that simultaneously contrasts and equates them as a terrible force to fear and exploit. […] A sheet gold relief shows the same plants binding alternating Nubians and Syrians on the inside of the pharoah’s gold state chariot, as the king in sphinx-form tramples them. […] The contradiction of the ideological statement about the Nubians, in particular, as foreigners, when in actuality they were part of the Nubian kingdom shows the strength this concept had upon the Egyptian governing body.” §REF§(Cheal 2004, 57) Cheal, Catherine. 2004. ‘The Meaning of Skin Color in Eighteenth Dynasty Egypt‘. In Race and Identity in the Nile Valley. Edited by Carolyn Fleuhr-Lobban and kharyssa Rhodes. Trenton: Red Sea Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2T52XJZJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2T52XJZJ </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Gov_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 198, "name": "EgNKThu", "start_year": -1550, "end_year": -1293, "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Thutmosid Period", "new_name": "eg_new_k_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "During the New Kingdom, the Egyptian king acquired the title of 'pharaoh', meaning 'great house'. In the Thutmosid Period, or Eighteenth Dynasty (1550-1293 BCE), the pharaohs turned the Egyptian 'home' into a great empire stretching from Kush in northern Sudan (conquered by Thutmose I) to the south to Palestine and Syria in the northeast (taken by Thutmose III). §REF§ (Sherif 1981, 265) N. M. Sherif. 1981. 'Nubia before Napata (-3100 to -750)', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa</i>, edited by G. Mokhtar, 245-77. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ §REF§ (Dupuy and Dupuy 2007, 5) R. Ernest Dupuy and Trevor N. Dupuy. 2007. <i>The Collins Encyclopedia of Military History: From 3500 B.C. to the Present</i>. 4th ed. London: BCA. §REF§ For the first time, the capital of a great Egyptian state was in Upper Egypt, at Thebes (although in 1373 BCE Akhenaten briefly had the capital moved to El Amarna in Middle Egypt).<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The pharaoh, a living god-king, was also the chief priest, highest judge and top military commander; he usually fought in battle, as Thutmose III apparently did at the famous Bronze Age battle of Megiddo in the 15th century BCE. §REF§ (Morenz and Popko 2010, 111) Ludwig D. Morenz and Lutz Popko. 2010. 'The Second Intermediate Period and the New Kingdom', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 101-19. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ The professional army was augmented by troops from conquered places such as Nubia and Libya. §REF§ (Spalinger 2005, 6-7) Anthony J. Spalinger. 2005. <i>War in Ancient Egypt: The New Kingdom</i>. Malden, MA: Blackwell. §REF§ <br>During the New Kingdom, labyrinthine networks of imperial power and wage-earning agents we know as scribes §REF§ (Van Dijk 2000, 298-99) Jacobus Van Dijk. 2003. 'The Amarna Period and the Later New Kingdom', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 265-307. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ were overseen by two viziers: one for the north and one for the south of Egypt. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 208) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The Egyptian vizier was the second-highest judge; §REF§ (Brewer and Teeter 1999, 73) Douglas J. Brewer and Emily Teeter. 1999. <i>Egypt and the Egyptians</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ he supervised the activities of the state bureaucracy and served as a representative of the pharaoh's interests. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 180) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Most of the viziers' duties seem to have been judicial, involving dispute settlement, answering petitions, and authorizing transfers of property. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 180) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ For most of the two to three million people who occupied New Kingdom Egypt, however, the law was usually administered at the local level, §REF§ (Brewer and Teeter 1999, 73) Douglas J. Brewer and Emily Teeter. 1999. <i>Egypt and the Egyptians</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ under chiefs of towns (the capitals of nomes) and mayors of villages.<br>The resources commanded by the New Kingdom Egyptian state enabled the pharaohs to carry out grand architectural and tomb-building projects. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 182) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ The most prolific builder of the Thutmosid Period was a female pharaoh called Hatshepsut. §REF§ (Bryan 2000, 229) Betsy M. Bryan. 2000. 'The 18th Dynasty before The Amarna Period (c. 1550-1352 BC)' in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 207-64. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ At Deir el-Medina, in the Valley of the Kings, opposite Thebes, a workers' village was created at the start of the Eighteenth Dynasty to house craftsmen dedicated to building royal tombs. §REF§ (Bryan 2000, 213) Betsy M. Bryan. 2000. 'The 18th Dynasty before The Amarna Period (c. 1550-1352 BC)' in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 207-64. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The community was managed by a palace scribe appointed by the vizier. The scribe oversaw supervisors, who managed two teams of five workers on ten-day shifts. §REF§ (Ziskind and Halioua 2007) Bernard Ziskind and Bruno Halioua. 2007. 'Occupational Medicine in Ancient Egypt'. <i>Medical Hypotheses</i> 69 (4): 942-45. §REF§ In the village, oracle statues attended by priests served as the 'highest local voice of authority'. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 235) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>Although not a typical town, documents written by skilled workers at Deir el-Medina reveal that writing was not confined to the elite, but had become important in wider society. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 156) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Major temples across Egypt included libraries and archives, most likely managed by scribes educated in local schools. §REF§ (Lazaridis 2016) Nikolaos Lazaridis. 2016. 'Education and Apprenticeship', in <i>UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology</i>. Accessible online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://uee.cdh.ucla.edu/articles/education_and_apprenticeship/?x=87&y=5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://uee.cdh.ucla.edu/articles/education_and_apprenticeship/?x=87&y=5</a>. §REF§ Documents attesting to the sophistication of this Late Bronze Age state include government archives, wills, title deeds, census lists, conscription lists, orders, memos, tax lists, letters, journals, inventories, regulations, and transcripts of trials. §REF§ (Brewer and Teeter 1999, 73) Douglas J. Brewer and Emily Teeter. 1999. <i>Egypt and the Egyptians</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 662, "year_from": -31, "year_to": 248, "description": "“In A.D. 249 the emperor Trajan Decius issued an edict requiring the inhabitants of the Roman Empire to sacrifice to the gods. With this decree, he also inaugurated the first empire-wide persecution of Christians. Previously, persecutions of Christians had always been local affairs determined by local conditions. Thereafter, persecutions were largely instigated by emperors and took place on an imperial scale. It has consequently become common to distinguish pre-Decian persecution, characterized by its local and ad hoc nature, from the centrally organized persecutions of Decius in A.D. 249—50, Valerian in A.D. 257-60, and Diocletian, Galerius, and Maximinus in A.D. 303-13.”§REF§(Rives 1999: 135) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C96HX7NN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: C96HX7NN </b></a>§REF§ “Under the emperor Valerian, Christians were targeted explicitly. [...] Apparently (and in the face of the problems the empire was facing, understandably) under Valerian there was renewed stress on homogeneous worship of the gods who guaranteed the security of Rome. Christians seem to have replied that they already prayed for the well-being of empire and emperor. This was not acceptable. Whatever the precise circumstances, in ad 257 Valerian forbade Christian gatherings and entering of their cemeteries. Christians had to conform to Rome. The higher clergy were to be arrested and had to sacrifice. If they did not, they were to suffer the consequences. Unclear about what these consequences were, the senate asked Valerian what to do with those who disobeyed (Potter 2004: 255; Clarke 2005: 637–42). Valerian’s response left no room for doubt. [...] Leading Christians should be executed, unless they were men of high standing. Even these would have only temporary respite before suffering the death penalty. Women, too, were targeted, even those connected to ‘Caesar’s household’, meaning those working at the imperial court (including slaves and freedwomen). They were sent to imperial estates – here meaning the mines, from which few if any came back alive.” §REF§ (Hekster and Zair 2008, 74) Hekster, Olivier, and Nicholas Zair. 2008. Rome and its Empire, AD 193-284. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JK9U4QUR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JK9U4QUR </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Gov_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 70, "name": "ItRomPr", "start_year": -31, "end_year": 284, "long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate", "new_name": "it_roman_principate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Roman Principate (31 BCE-284 CE) refers to the first period of the Roman Empire, when the de facto ruler was termed the <i>princeps</i>, or 'leading citizen'. The period begins with the victory of the first emperor, Augustus (then Octavian) over his rival Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE and ends with the accession of Diocletian after the 'crisis' of the 3rd century CE (235-284 CE). §REF§ (Boatwright et al. 2012) Mary T. Boatwright, Daniel J. Gargola, Noel Lenski and Richard J. A. Talbert. 2012. <i>The Romans. From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire</i>. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>Retaining and solidifying many of the institutions, cultural forms, and economic base that had led to Rome's hegemonic position during the Republican period, the Empire became one of the largest, most long-lived, and most prosperous imperial states the world has ever known. Augustus established a dynasty lasting until the death of the Emperor Nero in 68 CE, after which followed a brief civil war between different potential successors. Despite repeated bouts of similar warfare during succession crises following the various dynasties that ruled the Principate, the Empire remained remarkably stable throughout this period. Rome was able to unite - and keep together - a huge swathe of territory encompassing all of western Europe, North Africa, Egypt, the eastern Mediterranean, most of Anatolia, and parts of the Near East. Integrating diverse regions into this single empire facilitated the spread of Roman institutions - notably its legal system, urban infrastructure, cultural forms, and political structure. It also promoted economic development by enabling the safe transport of goods and people to every corner of the empire. §REF§ (Bowman and Wilson 2009) Alan K. Bowman and Andrew Wilson. 2009. 'Quantifying the Roman Economy: Integration, Growth, Decline?', in <i>Quantifying the Roman Economy: Methods and Problems</i>, edited by Alan K. Bowman and Andrew Wilson, 3-86. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ It was during this period that Rome built some of its greatest structures: the Pantheon, the Coliseum, the imperial <i>fora</i> (market squares) in the heart of Rome, and many others. The Principate overall produced so much wealth and so many cultural achievements that the great 18th-century English historian Edward Gibbon proclaimed the Empire at its peak in the 2nd century CE to be 'the period in the history of the world, during which the condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous'. §REF§ (Gibbon [2003] 1869, 53) Edward Gibbon. [2003] 1869. <i>The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, edited by Hans-Friedrich Mueller. New York: Modern Library. §REF§ <br>In the late 3rd century CE, beginning after the end of the Severan Dynasty, the Principate nearly collapsed in the face of internal warfare and pressure from external foes, including the Sassanid Persian Empire and nomadic tribes from Germany and eastern Europe. Rome briefly lost control over parts of France, Britain, and southern Spain and suffered several significant losses in battle to the Sassanids. Under first the Emperor Aurelian (r. 270-275 CE) then Diocletian (r. 284-305), however, all territory was recovered and a series of administrative and economic reforms inaugurated a second phase of the Roman Empire, which we refer to as the Dominate (denoting the increasing centralization of authority and the development of a large bureaucratic apparatus).<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Nominally, there was no change in political organization between the Republican period and the Principate. The first princeps, Augustus, kept all Republican institutions and offices, including the Senate, intact. There was clear practical change in the power structure, however, as Augustus, and all emperors after him, asserted personal control over almost the entire Roman army and were granted unprecedented legislative, religious, and judicial powers to shape politics and Roman society at large. Whereas a defining principle of Republican governance was that no individual should be able to hold multiple offices simultaneously, amassing power in several domains (military, legislative, religious, and so on), emperors broke this tradition and drew their authority from numerous offices, titles, and the authority they carried. §REF§ (Noreña 2010) Carlos Noreña. 2010. 'The Early Imperial Monarchy', in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies</i>, edited by A. Barchiesi and W. Scheidel, 533-46. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>The Roman emperor was also generally one of the wealthiest people in the Principate, controlling huge agriculturally productive estates throughout the Empire, particularly in North Africa and Egypt. §REF§ (Kehoe 2007) Dennis P. Kehoe. 2007. <i>Law and the Rural Economy in the Roman Empire</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ In this period, state revenues were split between the 'public' treasury (<i>aerarium</i>) and an imperial treasury (<i>fiscus</i>) under the direct control of the emperor. §REF§ (Adkins and Adkins 1998, 45) Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins. 1998. <i>Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Principate had a fairly limited reach, particularly outside of Italy, but the state did have some significant expenses which it met by collecting tax from the Empire's vast territory and large population, taking in rents from the imperial estates. In addition to paying the salaries of imperial officials - a relatively small expense as only limited central authority was exerted in the provinces (mainly the provincial governors and their retinue) - the emperor was responsible for financing a professional citizen army, the major state expense along with public works projects such as roads, aqueducts, and temples. The costs of these public works, though, were split between the personal fortune of the emperors who acted as patrons, particularly in Italy, and that of wealthy patrons in the provinces, who financed much of the urban growth in these regions. Further, beginning in the later Republican period and continuing throughout the Empire, the imperial state provided grain at reduced prices to citizens living in Rome; another considerable expense. §REF§ (Duncan-Jones 1994) Richard Duncan-Jones. 1994. <i>Money and Government in the Roman Empire</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Scheidel 2015) Walter Scheidel. 2015. 'State Revenue and Expenditure in the Han and Roman Empires', in <i>State Power in Ancient China and Rome</i>, edited by Walter Scheidel, 150-80. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Garnsey and Saller 1987) Peter Garnsey and Richard P. Saller. 1987. <i>The Roman Empire: Economy, Society, and Culture</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>The Emperor was assisted by his directly appointed <i>consilium</i> (advisory council), which was often made up of freedmen (manumitted slaves) and personal slaves. §REF§ (Noreña 2010, 538) Carlos Noreña. 2010. 'The Early Imperial Monarchy', in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies</i>, edited by A. Barchiesi and W. Scheidel, 533-46. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Harries 2010) Jill Harries. 2010. 'Law', in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies</i>, edited by Alessandro Barchiesi and Walter Scheidel, 637-50. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Senate, not the emperor, formally retained ultimate executive power and could override or critique the emperor's actions, but in practice this was quite rare and could be dangerous to the critic. §REF§ (Harris 2010) W. V. Harris. 2010. 'Power', in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies</i>, edited by Alessandro Barchiesi and Walter Scheidel, 564-78. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ This centralized exercise of power by the Emperor, though, did not extend to the provinces, where the focus of imperial administration was squarely on securing revenue (cash and in-kind tax and rents on imperial properties) and maintaining peace, both internally and against potential external enemies, notably the powerful Persian Empires to the East. Roman provinces were governed by fairly autonomous officials (<i>procurator</i>, <i>curator</i>, <i>praefectus</i>, <i>proconsul</i>, etc.) and priests (<i>flamen</i>, etc.). §REF§ (Talbert 1996) Richard J. A. Talbert. 1996. 'The Senate and Senatorial and Equestrian Posts', in <i>The Cambridge Ancient History</i>, edited by Alan K. Bowman, Edward Champlin and Andrew Lintott, 324-43. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Ando 2013) Clifford Ando. 2013. <i>Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Urbanization was also encouraged throughout the Empire; provincial cities were administered as 'mini-Rome's, with local urban equivalents of the Senate and most administrative, judicial, and religious magistracies. Roman cultural and infrastructural achievements were widely mimicked, with aqueducts, temples, theatres, bathhouses, and material culture (for example, particular ceramic forms, a culture of communal feasting, and the habit of publicizing achievements with inscribed stone tablets) adapted by numerous provincial towns and cities. §REF§ (Wilson 2011) Andrew Wilson. 2011. 'City Sizes and Urbanization in the Roman Empire', in <i>Settlement, Urbanization, and Population</i>, edited by Alan K. Bowman and Andrew Wilson, 161-95. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ This was true across the Empire, though particularly salient in the west, whereas Roman settlements in the East tended to retain many of their pre-Roman urban forms and cultural traditions. §REF§ (Boatwright 2000) Mary Taliaferro Boatwright. 2000. <i>Hadrian and the Cities of the Roman Empire</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Ando 2013) Clifford Ando. 2013. <i>Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>By the mid-2nd century CE, the city of Rome had reached over one million inhabitants, a significant feat for an ancient urban settlement. The population of the entire Empire is estimated at between 50 to over 60 million. §REF§ (Scheidel 2009) Walter Scheidel. 2009. 'Population and Demography', in <i>A Companion to Ancient History</i>, edited by A. Erskine, 234-45. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Estimating the number of state employees is an extremely difficult task, but one scholar has supposed that if the imperial government at its largest extent in the 4th century CE 'had somewhat over thirty thousand functionaries', then before this time a figure of 10,000-12,000 might be reasonable. §REF§ (Lendon 1997, 3) J. E. Lendon. 1997. <i>Empire of Honour: The Art of Government in the Roman World</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 1, "name": "Latium", "subregion": "Southern Europe", "longitude": "12.486948000000", "latitude": "41.890407000000", "capital_city": "Rome", "nga_code": "IT", "fao_country": "Italy", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 663, "year_from": 249, "year_to": 284, "description": "“In A.D. 249 the emperor Trajan Decius issued an edict requiring the inhabitants of the Roman Empire to sacrifice to the gods. With this decree, he also inaugurated the first empire-wide persecution of Christians. Previously, persecutions of Christians had always been local affairs determined by local conditions. Thereafter, persecutions were largely instigated by emperors and took place on an imperial scale. It has consequently become common to distinguish pre-Decian persecution, characterized by its local and ad hoc nature, from the centrally organized persecutions of Decius in A.D. 249—50, Valerian in A.D. 257-60, and Diocletian, Galerius, and Maximinus in A.D. 303-13.”§REF§(Rives 1999: 135) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C96HX7NN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: C96HX7NN </b></a>§REF§ “Under the emperor Valerian, Christians were targeted explicitly. [...] Apparently (and in the face of the problems the empire was facing, understandably) under Valerian there was renewed stress on homogeneous worship of the gods who guaranteed the security of Rome. Christians seem to have replied that they already prayed for the well-being of empire and emperor. This was not acceptable. Whatever the precise circumstances, in ad 257 Valerian forbade Christian gatherings and entering of their cemeteries. Christians had to conform to Rome. The higher clergy were to be arrested and had to sacrifice. If they did not, they were to suffer the consequences. Unclear about what these consequences were, the senate asked Valerian what to do with those who disobeyed (Potter 2004: 255; Clarke 2005: 637–42). Valerian’s response left no room for doubt. [...] Leading Christians should be executed, unless they were men of high standing. Even these would have only temporary respite before suffering the death penalty. Women, too, were targeted, even those connected to ‘Caesar’s household’, meaning those working at the imperial court (including slaves and freedwomen). They were sent to imperial estates – here meaning the mines, from which few if any came back alive.” §REF§ (Hekster and Zair 2008, 74) Hekster, Olivier, and Nicholas Zair. 2008. Rome and its Empire, AD 193-284. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JK9U4QUR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JK9U4QUR </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Gov_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 70, "name": "ItRomPr", "start_year": -31, "end_year": 284, "long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate", "new_name": "it_roman_principate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Roman Principate (31 BCE-284 CE) refers to the first period of the Roman Empire, when the de facto ruler was termed the <i>princeps</i>, or 'leading citizen'. The period begins with the victory of the first emperor, Augustus (then Octavian) over his rival Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE and ends with the accession of Diocletian after the 'crisis' of the 3rd century CE (235-284 CE). §REF§ (Boatwright et al. 2012) Mary T. Boatwright, Daniel J. Gargola, Noel Lenski and Richard J. A. Talbert. 2012. <i>The Romans. From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire</i>. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>Retaining and solidifying many of the institutions, cultural forms, and economic base that had led to Rome's hegemonic position during the Republican period, the Empire became one of the largest, most long-lived, and most prosperous imperial states the world has ever known. Augustus established a dynasty lasting until the death of the Emperor Nero in 68 CE, after which followed a brief civil war between different potential successors. Despite repeated bouts of similar warfare during succession crises following the various dynasties that ruled the Principate, the Empire remained remarkably stable throughout this period. Rome was able to unite - and keep together - a huge swathe of territory encompassing all of western Europe, North Africa, Egypt, the eastern Mediterranean, most of Anatolia, and parts of the Near East. Integrating diverse regions into this single empire facilitated the spread of Roman institutions - notably its legal system, urban infrastructure, cultural forms, and political structure. It also promoted economic development by enabling the safe transport of goods and people to every corner of the empire. §REF§ (Bowman and Wilson 2009) Alan K. Bowman and Andrew Wilson. 2009. 'Quantifying the Roman Economy: Integration, Growth, Decline?', in <i>Quantifying the Roman Economy: Methods and Problems</i>, edited by Alan K. Bowman and Andrew Wilson, 3-86. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ It was during this period that Rome built some of its greatest structures: the Pantheon, the Coliseum, the imperial <i>fora</i> (market squares) in the heart of Rome, and many others. The Principate overall produced so much wealth and so many cultural achievements that the great 18th-century English historian Edward Gibbon proclaimed the Empire at its peak in the 2nd century CE to be 'the period in the history of the world, during which the condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous'. §REF§ (Gibbon [2003] 1869, 53) Edward Gibbon. [2003] 1869. <i>The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, edited by Hans-Friedrich Mueller. New York: Modern Library. §REF§ <br>In the late 3rd century CE, beginning after the end of the Severan Dynasty, the Principate nearly collapsed in the face of internal warfare and pressure from external foes, including the Sassanid Persian Empire and nomadic tribes from Germany and eastern Europe. Rome briefly lost control over parts of France, Britain, and southern Spain and suffered several significant losses in battle to the Sassanids. Under first the Emperor Aurelian (r. 270-275 CE) then Diocletian (r. 284-305), however, all territory was recovered and a series of administrative and economic reforms inaugurated a second phase of the Roman Empire, which we refer to as the Dominate (denoting the increasing centralization of authority and the development of a large bureaucratic apparatus).<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Nominally, there was no change in political organization between the Republican period and the Principate. The first princeps, Augustus, kept all Republican institutions and offices, including the Senate, intact. There was clear practical change in the power structure, however, as Augustus, and all emperors after him, asserted personal control over almost the entire Roman army and were granted unprecedented legislative, religious, and judicial powers to shape politics and Roman society at large. Whereas a defining principle of Republican governance was that no individual should be able to hold multiple offices simultaneously, amassing power in several domains (military, legislative, religious, and so on), emperors broke this tradition and drew their authority from numerous offices, titles, and the authority they carried. §REF§ (Noreña 2010) Carlos Noreña. 2010. 'The Early Imperial Monarchy', in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies</i>, edited by A. Barchiesi and W. Scheidel, 533-46. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>The Roman emperor was also generally one of the wealthiest people in the Principate, controlling huge agriculturally productive estates throughout the Empire, particularly in North Africa and Egypt. §REF§ (Kehoe 2007) Dennis P. Kehoe. 2007. <i>Law and the Rural Economy in the Roman Empire</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ In this period, state revenues were split between the 'public' treasury (<i>aerarium</i>) and an imperial treasury (<i>fiscus</i>) under the direct control of the emperor. §REF§ (Adkins and Adkins 1998, 45) Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins. 1998. <i>Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Principate had a fairly limited reach, particularly outside of Italy, but the state did have some significant expenses which it met by collecting tax from the Empire's vast territory and large population, taking in rents from the imperial estates. In addition to paying the salaries of imperial officials - a relatively small expense as only limited central authority was exerted in the provinces (mainly the provincial governors and their retinue) - the emperor was responsible for financing a professional citizen army, the major state expense along with public works projects such as roads, aqueducts, and temples. The costs of these public works, though, were split between the personal fortune of the emperors who acted as patrons, particularly in Italy, and that of wealthy patrons in the provinces, who financed much of the urban growth in these regions. Further, beginning in the later Republican period and continuing throughout the Empire, the imperial state provided grain at reduced prices to citizens living in Rome; another considerable expense. §REF§ (Duncan-Jones 1994) Richard Duncan-Jones. 1994. <i>Money and Government in the Roman Empire</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Scheidel 2015) Walter Scheidel. 2015. 'State Revenue and Expenditure in the Han and Roman Empires', in <i>State Power in Ancient China and Rome</i>, edited by Walter Scheidel, 150-80. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Garnsey and Saller 1987) Peter Garnsey and Richard P. Saller. 1987. <i>The Roman Empire: Economy, Society, and Culture</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>The Emperor was assisted by his directly appointed <i>consilium</i> (advisory council), which was often made up of freedmen (manumitted slaves) and personal slaves. §REF§ (Noreña 2010, 538) Carlos Noreña. 2010. 'The Early Imperial Monarchy', in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies</i>, edited by A. Barchiesi and W. Scheidel, 533-46. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Harries 2010) Jill Harries. 2010. 'Law', in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies</i>, edited by Alessandro Barchiesi and Walter Scheidel, 637-50. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Senate, not the emperor, formally retained ultimate executive power and could override or critique the emperor's actions, but in practice this was quite rare and could be dangerous to the critic. §REF§ (Harris 2010) W. V. Harris. 2010. 'Power', in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies</i>, edited by Alessandro Barchiesi and Walter Scheidel, 564-78. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ This centralized exercise of power by the Emperor, though, did not extend to the provinces, where the focus of imperial administration was squarely on securing revenue (cash and in-kind tax and rents on imperial properties) and maintaining peace, both internally and against potential external enemies, notably the powerful Persian Empires to the East. Roman provinces were governed by fairly autonomous officials (<i>procurator</i>, <i>curator</i>, <i>praefectus</i>, <i>proconsul</i>, etc.) and priests (<i>flamen</i>, etc.). §REF§ (Talbert 1996) Richard J. A. Talbert. 1996. 'The Senate and Senatorial and Equestrian Posts', in <i>The Cambridge Ancient History</i>, edited by Alan K. Bowman, Edward Champlin and Andrew Lintott, 324-43. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Ando 2013) Clifford Ando. 2013. <i>Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Urbanization was also encouraged throughout the Empire; provincial cities were administered as 'mini-Rome's, with local urban equivalents of the Senate and most administrative, judicial, and religious magistracies. Roman cultural and infrastructural achievements were widely mimicked, with aqueducts, temples, theatres, bathhouses, and material culture (for example, particular ceramic forms, a culture of communal feasting, and the habit of publicizing achievements with inscribed stone tablets) adapted by numerous provincial towns and cities. §REF§ (Wilson 2011) Andrew Wilson. 2011. 'City Sizes and Urbanization in the Roman Empire', in <i>Settlement, Urbanization, and Population</i>, edited by Alan K. Bowman and Andrew Wilson, 161-95. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ This was true across the Empire, though particularly salient in the west, whereas Roman settlements in the East tended to retain many of their pre-Roman urban forms and cultural traditions. §REF§ (Boatwright 2000) Mary Taliaferro Boatwright. 2000. <i>Hadrian and the Cities of the Roman Empire</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Ando 2013) Clifford Ando. 2013. <i>Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>By the mid-2nd century CE, the city of Rome had reached over one million inhabitants, a significant feat for an ancient urban settlement. The population of the entire Empire is estimated at between 50 to over 60 million. §REF§ (Scheidel 2009) Walter Scheidel. 2009. 'Population and Demography', in <i>A Companion to Ancient History</i>, edited by A. Erskine, 234-45. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Estimating the number of state employees is an extremely difficult task, but one scholar has supposed that if the imperial government at its largest extent in the 4th century CE 'had somewhat over thirty thousand functionaries', then before this time a figure of 10,000-12,000 might be reasonable. §REF§ (Lendon 1997, 3) J. E. Lendon. 1997. <i>Empire of Honour: The Art of Government in the Roman World</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 1, "name": "Latium", "subregion": "Southern Europe", "longitude": "12.486948000000", "latitude": "41.890407000000", "capital_city": "Rome", "nga_code": "IT", "fao_country": "Italy", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 660, "year_from": 285, "year_to": 312, "description": "VERY_RARELY_COMMENT: “Despite Roman persecution and crucifixion of early Christians in the empire, the number of Christians grew at a high rate. This growth, despite cyclical and violent retributions from Roman authorities, culminated in the legitimization of the religion by Emperor Constantine (313), the Council of Nicaea (325), and in the ultimate dominance of the religion over European civilization in a vertically integrated organization up to the Protestant Reformation. In later lore, much of it apocryphal, Constantine (285?—327 CE) is made the champion of Christianity—one who was allegedly struck with a vision of Christ in battle leading him to adopt the religion that the Roman Empire had tried to contain over the first three centuries CE. Constantine, moreover and at least apocryphally, established the organizational structure of the “Holy See” in Rome with papal primacy over the secular as well. Early Christian historians such as Eusebius and theologians such as Augustine as well as later writers (mostly with slim evidence) set these views in concrete”…” Constantine did “legitimize” Christian religion in 313 CE (Lenski 2006b). Persecutions did occur in cycles over the first three hundred years.” §REF§ (Ekelund Jr. and Tollison 2011, 79) Ekelund Jr., Robert B. and Robert D. Tollison. 2011. Economic Origins of Roman Christianity. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8UUZNR4E\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8UUZNR4E </b></a> §REF§ “In time, the Tetrarchs’ fervent promotion of Jupiter, Hercules, and traditional polytheism led them to attempt the suppression of other cults. Diocletian issued a stern edict against Manichaeans, followers of the teaching of Mani, most probably in 302 (although a date five years earlier has been considered possible). Manichaeans were believed to come from Persia, or at the least to be Sasanid supporters, thus providing a political motive for Diocletian’s action. But his edict also condemns their beliefs as un-Roman and depraved. It calls for the sect’s founders and leaders to be burnt alive, together with their writings, and for their followers to suffer capital punishment and confiscation of their estates. What impact the edict made is unknown, since the historical record focuses on the Christian persecution instigated at almost the same time but with much wider repercussions.” §REF§ (Boatwright, Gargola, and Talbert 2004, 446) Boatwright, Mary T., Gargola, Daniel J., and Talbert, Richard J. A. 2004. Romans: From Village to Empire. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AKNJNXWG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AKNJNXWG </b></a> §REF§ <br>MORE_FREQUENTLY_THAN_VERY_RARELY_COMMENT: “Despite Roman persecution and crucifixion of early Christians in the empire, the number of Christians grew at a high rate. This growth, despite cyclical and violent retributions from Roman authorities, culminated in the legitimization of the religion by Emperor Constantine (313), the Council of Nicaea (325), and in the ultimate dominance of the religion over European civilization in a vertically integrated organization up to the Protestant Reformation.” §REF§ (Ekelund Jr. and Tollison 2011, 79) Ekelund Jr., Robert B. and Robert D. Tollison. 2011. Economic Origins of Roman Christianity. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8UUZNR4E\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8UUZNR4E </b></a> §REF§ “In time, the Tetrarchs’ fervent promotion of Jupiter, Hercules, and traditional polytheism led them to attempt the suppression of other cults. Diocletian issued a stern edict against Manichaeans, followers of the teaching of Mani, most probably in 302 (although a date five years earlier has been considered possible). Manichaeans were believed to come from Persia, or at the least to be Sasanid supporters, thus providing a political motive for Diocletian’s action. But his edict also condemns their beliefs as un-Roman and depraved. It calls for the sect’s founders and leaders to be burnt alive, together with their writings, and for their followers to suffer capital punishment and confiscation of their estates. What impact the edict made is unknown, since the historical record focuses on the Christian persecution instigated at almost the same time but with much wider repercussions.” §REF§ (Boatwright, Gargola, and Talbert 2004, 446) Boatwright, Mary T., Gargola, Daniel J., and Talbert, Richard J. A. 2004. Romans: From Village to Empire. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AKNJNXWG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AKNJNXWG </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Gov_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 71, "name": "TrRomDm", "start_year": 285, "end_year": 394, "long_name": "Roman Empire - Dominate", "new_name": "tr_roman_dominate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Roman Principate is generally regarded as ending during or just after the crisis of the 3rd century CE (235-284 CE). The date of 284 CE marks the accession of Diocletian §REF§ (Boatwright et al. 2012, 438) Mary T. Boatwright, Daniel J. Gargola, Noel Lenski and Richard J. A. Talbert. 2012. <i>The Romans. From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire</i>. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. §REF§ and the period includes the Constantinian Dynasty (305-363 CE), Valentinian Dynasty (364-378 CE) and the early part of the Theodosian dynasty (379-457 CE). According to the historian David Baker, the 'Eastern Empire enjoyed an expansion phase c. 285-450'. §REF§ (Baker 2011, 245-46) David Baker. 2011. 'The Roman Dominate from the Perspective of Demographic-Structural Theory'. <i>Cliodynamics</i> 2 (2): 217-51. §REF§ The period ends after the reign of Theodosius, the last emperor to rule over both the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire. §REF§ (Morgan 2012) James F. Morgan. 2012. <i>The Roman Empire: Fall of the West, Survival of the East</i>. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. §REF§ <br>Near the end of the 3rd century, beginning at the end of the Severan Dynasty, the Principate nearly collapsed in the face of internal warfare and pressure from external foes, including the Sassanid Persian Empire and nomadic tribes from Germany and eastern Europe. Rome briefly lost control over parts of France, Britain, and southern Spain and suffered several significant losses in battle to the Sassanids. Under first the Emperor Aurelian (r. 270-275 CE) then Diocletian (r. 284-305), all territory was recovered and a series of administrative and economic reforms inaugurated a second phase of the Roman Empire, which we refer to as the Dominate (denoting the increasing centralization of authority and the development of a large bureaucratic apparatus). This period saw notably the increasing popularization of Christianity, culminating in its acceptance as the official state religion under the Emperor Theodosius at the end of the period. The late 3rd century also saw the Empire split into two distinct administrative halves: a Western half, with its capital at Rome, and an Eastern one, ruled first from Nicomedia in Anatolia and then from Byzantium (re-founded as Constantinople, modern-day Istanbul, by the Emperor Constantine I the Great in 330 CE). Each half was ruled by a different emperor along with a junior colleague, titled 'Caesar'. This arrangement is known as the Tetrarchy ('rule of four'), which lasted until Constantine I managed to once again rule both halves together. The Empire was divided a few more times, until Theodosius (r. 379-392 CE) united it for the final time. In 393, Theodosius once more divided the Empire, naming Arcadius Emperor in the East and Honorius Emperor in the West. This marks the end of the Dominate period, leading to a period of instability and, ultimately, the collapse of the Roman state in the west, yet recovery and the continuation of Roman rule in the east (which became known as the Byzantine Empire, after Constantinople's original name).<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the Dominate period, the power centre of the Roman Empire shifted decisively away from Rome and Italy, beset by decades of crisis and civil infighting, to Anatolia; specifically, to the old Greek city of Byzantium that was re-founded and glorified by the Emperor Constantine I. Before this, Diocletian brought stability back to the Empire after the crises of the 3rd century CE by inaugurating a series of administrative and economic reforms. Although most offices and institutions of the preceding Principate period were retained, Diocletian increased the number of provinces, adding more governors and provincial officials who reported directly to the emperor, and further split the empire into two halves to aid in the administration of such a vast and diverse territory. §REF§ (Black 2008, 181) Jeremy Black. 2008. <i>World History Atlas</i>. London: Dorling Kindersley. §REF§ §REF§ (Cameron 1993) Averil Cameron. 1993. <i>The Later Roman Empire, A.D. 284-430</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The early Dominate is known for the decline of autonomy, prestige, and power of Rome's provincial elite and the concomitant rapid increase in the power of the central bureaucracy. §REF§ (Loewenstein 1973, 238) Karl Loewenstein. 1973. <i>The Governance of Rome</i>. The Hague: Martin Nijhoff. §REF§ §REF§ (Eich 2005) Peter Eich. 2005. <i>Zur Metamorphose des politischen Systems in der römischen Kaiserzeit: Die Entstehung einer \"personalen Bürokratie\" im langen dritten Jahrhundert</i>. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. §REF§ §REF§ (Eich 2015) Peter Eich. 2015. 'The Common Denominator: Late Roman Imperial Bureaucracy from a Comparative Perspective', in <i>State Power in Ancient China and Rome</i>, edited by Walter Scheidel, 90-149. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>When Constantine I established Constantinople as the capital in 330 CE, he furnished the city with a palace, hippodrome, and a great imperial bureaucracy. In terms of personnel the administration in Constantinople reached its largest extent in the 4th century with 'somewhat over thirty thousand functionaries'. §REF§ (Lendon 1997, 3) J. E. Lendon. 1997. <i>Empire of Honour: The Art of Government in the Roman World</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Constantine was the first emperor to vigorously promote Christian religion and his patronage of the Christian church laid the foundations of a Christian empire. 'He built grand churches at the sacred loci of Christianity, including churches celebrating Christ's birth, baptism, and resurrection and Peter's death in Rome. ... Constantine's successors would continue this pattern. Many churches would become quite wealthy. Their clergy were exempt from taxation and other onerous obligations like labor.' §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 20) Kevin Madigan. 2015. <i>Medieval Christianity: A New History</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ <br>The Empire, creaking under its vast territory of 4.5 million square kilometres, supported a population of up to 70 million people. Rome had lost population from its peak under the Principate, probably supporting around 800,000 in 300 CE and around 500,000 by the beginning of the 5th century. Constantinople also had slightly under 500,000 inhabitants, though it developed rapidly under the patronage of Constantine I and his successors and became the new centre of literacy and culture in the Roman world - rivalling, if not surpassing, Rome herself. §REF§ (Lee 2013, 76) A. D. Lee. 2013. <i>From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-10-23T16:18:53.388454Z", "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 653, "year_from": 300, "year_to": 599, "description": "The following quote suggests that Jains were persecuted for roughly 200 years. “Jainism declined steeply in Tamil country from about the end of the 6th century A.D. when there was a tremendous upsurge of Saiva and Vaisnava sects revitalized by the Bhakti movement led by the Nayanmars and Alvars. The Tamil Jains were persecuted during this period. However, the persecution, uncharacteristic of Indian polity, did not last too long and the rulers resumed grants to the Jaina monasteries (palli) from about the end of the 8th century A.D. as attested by epigraphical evidence from the Pallava and Pantiya regions.” §REF§ (Umamaheshwari 2018, 48) Umamaheshwari, R. 2018. Reading History with the Tamil Jainas: A Study on Identity, Memory and Marginalisation. New Delhi: Springer. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W5X9TKB9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: W5X9TKB9 </b></a> §REF§ “In the latter half of the seventh century A.D. there occurred, however, a terrible persecution of Jainism in Southern India. King Kuna Sundara or Neumaran Pandya, who had brought up as a Jaina, became a pupil of saint Tirujnana Sumbandar and accepted the Saiva faith. Displaying the zeal of a convert he persecuted with savage cruelty his late co-religionists of whom no fewer than eight thousand were put to death. Mehendra Varman of the Pallava dynasty, whose rule extended to Trichinopoly, was originally a Jaina. Through the influence of a Tamil saint he accepted Saivism, and destroyed the large Jaina monastery of Pataliputtriam in South Arcot at about 610 A.D. §REF§ (Vidyabhusana 1988, 222-223) Vidyabhusana, Satis Chandra. 1988. A History of Indian Logic: Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern Schools. New Dehli: Motilal Bandrsidass. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4R2K2KRK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4R2K2KRK </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Gov_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 702, "name": "in_pallava_emp_2", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 890, "long_name": "Late Pallava Empire", "new_name": "in_pallava_emp_2", "polity_tag": "POL_SA_SI", "general_description": "The Pallava Empire originated in the early 4th century CE in the northern Tamil Nadu region§REF§ (Bush Trevino 2012, 46) Bush Travino, Macella. 2012. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Vol.4 Edited by Carolyn M. Elliot. Los Angeles: Sage. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4RPCX448/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4RPCX448/collection</a> §REF§The Pallavan capital was at Kanchi, modern-day Kanchipuram. The Pallava rulers were major beneifactors of education and gave land grants for schools. The Pallava dynasties also contributed to art and architecture by commissioning temples and shrines, particularly in the port city of Mamallapuram. §REF§ (Kamlesh 2010, 569) Kamelsh, Kapur. 2010. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In History of Ancient India: Portraits of a Nation. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection</a> §REF§ In the late 9th century, the Pallava Empire was succeeded by the Chola Empire. §REF§ (Kamlesh 2010, 566) Kamelsh, Kapur. 2010. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In History of Ancient India: Portraits of a Nation. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 661, "year_from": 313, "year_to": 394, "description": "VERY_RARELY_COMMENT: “Despite Roman persecution and crucifixion of early Christians in the empire, the number of Christians grew at a high rate. This growth, despite cyclical and violent retributions from Roman authorities, culminated in the legitimization of the religion by Emperor Constantine (313), the Council of Nicaea (325), and in the ultimate dominance of the religion over European civilization in a vertically integrated organization up to the Protestant Reformation. In later lore, much of it apocryphal, Constantine (285?—327 CE) is made the champion of Christianity—one who was allegedly struck with a vision of Christ in battle leading him to adopt the religion that the Roman Empire had tried to contain over the first three centuries CE. Constantine, moreover and at least apocryphally, established the organizational structure of the “Holy See” in Rome with papal primacy over the secular as well. Early Christian historians such as Eusebius and theologians such as Augustine as well as later writers (mostly with slim evidence) set these views in concrete”…” Constantine did “legitimize” Christian religion in 313 CE (Lenski 2006b). Persecutions did occur in cycles over the first three hundred years.” §REF§ (Ekelund Jr. and Tollison 2011, 79) Ekelund Jr., Robert B. and Robert D. Tollison. 2011. Economic Origins of Roman Christianity. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8UUZNR4E\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8UUZNR4E </b></a> §REF§ “In time, the Tetrarchs’ fervent promotion of Jupiter, Hercules, and traditional polytheism led them to attempt the suppression of other cults. Diocletian issued a stern edict against Manichaeans, followers of the teaching of Mani, most probably in 302 (although a date five years earlier has been considered possible). Manichaeans were believed to come from Persia, or at the least to be Sasanid supporters, thus providing a political motive for Diocletian’s action. But his edict also condemns their beliefs as un-Roman and depraved. It calls for the sect’s founders and leaders to be burnt alive, together with their writings, and for their followers to suffer capital punishment and confiscation of their estates. What impact the edict made is unknown, since the historical record focuses on the Christian persecution instigated at almost the same time but with much wider repercussions.” §REF§ (Boatwright, Gargola, and Talbert 2004, 446) Boatwright, Mary T., Gargola, Daniel J., and Talbert, Richard J. A. 2004. Romans: From Village to Empire. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AKNJNXWG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AKNJNXWG </b></a> §REF§ <br>MORE_FREQUENTLY_THAN_VERY_RARELY_COMMENT: “Despite Roman persecution and crucifixion of early Christians in the empire, the number of Christians grew at a high rate. This growth, despite cyclical and violent retributions from Roman authorities, culminated in the legitimization of the religion by Emperor Constantine (313), the Council of Nicaea (325), and in the ultimate dominance of the religion over European civilization in a vertically integrated organization up to the Protestant Reformation.” §REF§ (Ekelund Jr. and Tollison 2011, 79) Ekelund Jr., Robert B. and Robert D. Tollison. 2011. Economic Origins of Roman Christianity. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8UUZNR4E\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8UUZNR4E </b></a> §REF§ “In time, the Tetrarchs’ fervent promotion of Jupiter, Hercules, and traditional polytheism led them to attempt the suppression of other cults. Diocletian issued a stern edict against Manichaeans, followers of the teaching of Mani, most probably in 302 (although a date five years earlier has been considered possible). Manichaeans were believed to come from Persia, or at the least to be Sasanid supporters, thus providing a political motive for Diocletian’s action. But his edict also condemns their beliefs as un-Roman and depraved. It calls for the sect’s founders and leaders to be burnt alive, together with their writings, and for their followers to suffer capital punishment and confiscation of their estates. What impact the edict made is unknown, since the historical record focuses on the Christian persecution instigated at almost the same time but with much wider repercussions.” §REF§ (Boatwright, Gargola, and Talbert 2004, 446) Boatwright, Mary T., Gargola, Daniel J., and Talbert, Richard J. A. 2004. Romans: From Village to Empire. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AKNJNXWG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AKNJNXWG </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Gov_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 71, "name": "TrRomDm", "start_year": 285, "end_year": 394, "long_name": "Roman Empire - Dominate", "new_name": "tr_roman_dominate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Roman Principate is generally regarded as ending during or just after the crisis of the 3rd century CE (235-284 CE). The date of 284 CE marks the accession of Diocletian §REF§ (Boatwright et al. 2012, 438) Mary T. Boatwright, Daniel J. Gargola, Noel Lenski and Richard J. A. Talbert. 2012. <i>The Romans. From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire</i>. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. §REF§ and the period includes the Constantinian Dynasty (305-363 CE), Valentinian Dynasty (364-378 CE) and the early part of the Theodosian dynasty (379-457 CE). According to the historian David Baker, the 'Eastern Empire enjoyed an expansion phase c. 285-450'. §REF§ (Baker 2011, 245-46) David Baker. 2011. 'The Roman Dominate from the Perspective of Demographic-Structural Theory'. <i>Cliodynamics</i> 2 (2): 217-51. §REF§ The period ends after the reign of Theodosius, the last emperor to rule over both the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire. §REF§ (Morgan 2012) James F. Morgan. 2012. <i>The Roman Empire: Fall of the West, Survival of the East</i>. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. §REF§ <br>Near the end of the 3rd century, beginning at the end of the Severan Dynasty, the Principate nearly collapsed in the face of internal warfare and pressure from external foes, including the Sassanid Persian Empire and nomadic tribes from Germany and eastern Europe. Rome briefly lost control over parts of France, Britain, and southern Spain and suffered several significant losses in battle to the Sassanids. Under first the Emperor Aurelian (r. 270-275 CE) then Diocletian (r. 284-305), all territory was recovered and a series of administrative and economic reforms inaugurated a second phase of the Roman Empire, which we refer to as the Dominate (denoting the increasing centralization of authority and the development of a large bureaucratic apparatus). This period saw notably the increasing popularization of Christianity, culminating in its acceptance as the official state religion under the Emperor Theodosius at the end of the period. The late 3rd century also saw the Empire split into two distinct administrative halves: a Western half, with its capital at Rome, and an Eastern one, ruled first from Nicomedia in Anatolia and then from Byzantium (re-founded as Constantinople, modern-day Istanbul, by the Emperor Constantine I the Great in 330 CE). Each half was ruled by a different emperor along with a junior colleague, titled 'Caesar'. This arrangement is known as the Tetrarchy ('rule of four'), which lasted until Constantine I managed to once again rule both halves together. The Empire was divided a few more times, until Theodosius (r. 379-392 CE) united it for the final time. In 393, Theodosius once more divided the Empire, naming Arcadius Emperor in the East and Honorius Emperor in the West. This marks the end of the Dominate period, leading to a period of instability and, ultimately, the collapse of the Roman state in the west, yet recovery and the continuation of Roman rule in the east (which became known as the Byzantine Empire, after Constantinople's original name).<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the Dominate period, the power centre of the Roman Empire shifted decisively away from Rome and Italy, beset by decades of crisis and civil infighting, to Anatolia; specifically, to the old Greek city of Byzantium that was re-founded and glorified by the Emperor Constantine I. Before this, Diocletian brought stability back to the Empire after the crises of the 3rd century CE by inaugurating a series of administrative and economic reforms. Although most offices and institutions of the preceding Principate period were retained, Diocletian increased the number of provinces, adding more governors and provincial officials who reported directly to the emperor, and further split the empire into two halves to aid in the administration of such a vast and diverse territory. §REF§ (Black 2008, 181) Jeremy Black. 2008. <i>World History Atlas</i>. London: Dorling Kindersley. §REF§ §REF§ (Cameron 1993) Averil Cameron. 1993. <i>The Later Roman Empire, A.D. 284-430</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The early Dominate is known for the decline of autonomy, prestige, and power of Rome's provincial elite and the concomitant rapid increase in the power of the central bureaucracy. §REF§ (Loewenstein 1973, 238) Karl Loewenstein. 1973. <i>The Governance of Rome</i>. The Hague: Martin Nijhoff. §REF§ §REF§ (Eich 2005) Peter Eich. 2005. <i>Zur Metamorphose des politischen Systems in der römischen Kaiserzeit: Die Entstehung einer \"personalen Bürokratie\" im langen dritten Jahrhundert</i>. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. §REF§ §REF§ (Eich 2015) Peter Eich. 2015. 'The Common Denominator: Late Roman Imperial Bureaucracy from a Comparative Perspective', in <i>State Power in Ancient China and Rome</i>, edited by Walter Scheidel, 90-149. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>When Constantine I established Constantinople as the capital in 330 CE, he furnished the city with a palace, hippodrome, and a great imperial bureaucracy. In terms of personnel the administration in Constantinople reached its largest extent in the 4th century with 'somewhat over thirty thousand functionaries'. §REF§ (Lendon 1997, 3) J. E. Lendon. 1997. <i>Empire of Honour: The Art of Government in the Roman World</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Constantine was the first emperor to vigorously promote Christian religion and his patronage of the Christian church laid the foundations of a Christian empire. 'He built grand churches at the sacred loci of Christianity, including churches celebrating Christ's birth, baptism, and resurrection and Peter's death in Rome. ... Constantine's successors would continue this pattern. Many churches would become quite wealthy. Their clergy were exempt from taxation and other onerous obligations like labor.' §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 20) Kevin Madigan. 2015. <i>Medieval Christianity: A New History</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ <br>The Empire, creaking under its vast territory of 4.5 million square kilometres, supported a population of up to 70 million people. Rome had lost population from its peak under the Principate, probably supporting around 800,000 in 300 CE and around 500,000 by the beginning of the 5th century. Constantinople also had slightly under 500,000 inhabitants, though it developed rapidly under the patronage of Constantine I and his successors and became the new centre of literacy and culture in the Roman world - rivalling, if not surpassing, Rome herself. §REF§ (Lee 2013, 76) A. D. Lee. 2013. <i>From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-10-23T16:18:53.388454Z", "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 484, "year_from": 378, "year_to": 514, "description": "The apparent rapidity at which much of the population converted to Judaism and Christianity in this period, seemingly under a pagan government (as suggestsed by the fact that Judaism only became the official religion around 515 CE) suggests relative governmental tolerance. In the polity's final years, however, anti-Christian violence is well documented. “Both Judaism and Christianity flourished in the pre-Islamic Yemen, spreading extensively throughout the country during the second Himyari era (about 300-525). [...] By the early part of the sixth century A. D., Judaism featured strongly in the Yemen as a result of the conversion to it of the ýIimyari king Yusuf Ascar, generally known as Dhu- Nuwas, who subsequently declared his new faith the official religion of the state. [...] In the early part of the sixth century A. D. rivalry between the two newly introduced monotheistic religions - i. e. Judaism and Christianity - led the country to an armed struggle. In A. D. 515 the leadership of the Himyari Kingdom fell to Dhu-Nuwas, who had already adopted Judaism. The new king led the movement against the Abyssinians, who were occupying the Yemen at that time. The movement also took on an anti-Christian flavour, leading to several attacks against the Christians, culminating in the famous massacre of the Christians at Najran in A.D. 523.”§REF§(Al-Mad’aj, ‘A. A. M. M. 1988: 7-9) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VE7EKPTQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VE7EKPTQ </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Gov_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 354, "name": "YeHmyr2", "start_year": 378, "end_year": 525, "long_name": "Himyar II", "new_name": "ye_himyar_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "In 115 BCE the Himyarites were a tribe from the southwestern highlands of Yemen. They formed, with Saba, the dual kingdom of Saba and Dhu-Raydan §REF§ (Burrows 2010, 140) Robert D Burrows. 2010. Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Second Edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ §REF§ (Bryce 2009, 602) Trevor Bryce. 2009. The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia. The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the fall of the Persian Empire. Routledge. Abingdon. §REF§ after the Roman attacks in 25 BCE emboldened the Himyarites who \"siezed the Sabaean homelands and made the population subject to a new Saba-Himyar regime.\" §REF§ (McLaughlin 2014, 136) Raoul McLaughlin. 2014. The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India. Pen and Sword Military. Barnsley. §REF§ They used the royal title 'king of Saba and dhu-Raydan' with Raydan later becoming known as Qataban. §REF§ (Hitti 2002, 55) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ Dhu-Raydan (Zafar), the Himyarite capital, was located in the highlands near modern Yarim. §REF§ (Burrows 2010, 161) Robert D Burrows. 2010. Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Second Edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ <br>The Roman discovery of the Indian Ocean trade winds around 100 CE signaled the end of many great civilizations in South Arabia that used overland trade routes; §REF§ (Burrows 2010, xxiii) Robert D Burrows. 2010. Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Second Edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ but the Himyarite state was initially an exception, and prospered. For a time the Himyarites were a subject tribe of the Romans §REF§ (Friedman 2006, 105) Saul S. Friedman. 2006. A History of the Middle East. McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Jefferson. §REF§ and they possessed colonies which seeded the Abyssinian Kingdom in Ethiopia. §REF§ (Hitti 2002, 56) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ The wealth of the Himyar state, similarly acquired as other local kingdoms from the trade of incense and spices, came from trading overseas routes. While during the second millennium CE Saba split from Himyar the Himyarites later benefited immensely at the expense of their rival kingdoms as the overland routes became increasingly less efficient and disrupted by warfare, especially in the third century CE, which involved Himyar, Saba, Hadramawt and Aksum.<br>The Himyarites had a much more centralized polity than Saba throughout the early first millennium §REF§ (Korotayev 1996, 47) Andrey Vitalyevhich Korotayev. 1996. Pre-Islamic Yemen. Socio-political Organization of the Sabaean Cultural Area in the 2nd and 3rd Centuries AD. Harrassowitz Verlag. Wiesbaden. §REF§ but could not hold back the Abyssinians who invaded and occupied the tihama (Red Sea littoral) from the 2nd century CE; the Ethiopians conquered the Himyarite capital in 240 CE, but agreeing an alliance with Himyar withdraw from the Arabian peninsular §REF§ (Caton 2013, 45-46) Steven C Caton ed. 2013. Yemen. ABC-Clio. Santa Barbara §REF§ in about 270 CE. §REF§ (Orlin et al. 424) Eric Orlin. Lisbeth S Fried. Jennifer Wright Knust. Muchael L Satlow. Michael E Pregill. eds. 2016. The Routledge Encyclopedia of Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Routledge. New York. §REF§ The Himyar-Abyssinain alliance or vassalage ended about 298 CE. §REF§ (Syvanne 2015, 133) Ilkka Syvanne. 2015. Military History of Late Rome 284-361. Pen and Sword. Barnsley. §REF§ Himyar \"reached the peak of its power in the third century as a result of a successful series of wars against the local heathen tribes and the African realm of Ethiopia.\" §REF§ (285) Norman Roth ed. 2016. Routledge Revivals: Medieval Jewish Civilization (2003): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. §REF§ Between 270-280 CE the Sabaean Kingdom was annexed by the Himyarites. §REF§ (Caton 2013, 45-46) Steven C Caton ed. 2013. Yemen. ABC-Clio. Santa Barbara §REF§ Hadramawt was conquered by 300 CE. §REF§ (Hitti 2002, 60) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ Throughout this period the profits from the incense trade were in a progressive decline as the rise of Christianity in the west had reduced demand for a product that was most commonly used in pagan rituals. When in 395 CE the Roman emperor Theodosius declared Christianity to be the official state religion of the Roman Empire the trade ceased entirely. §REF§ (Romano 2004, 13) Amy Romano. 2004. A Historical Atlas of Yemen. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. New York. §REF§ <br>At this same time Himyarites also were undergoing their own seismic shift in religious belief system - rapidly converting from their pagan polytheistic belief system to monotheistic religious doctrines by the late 4th century CE. §REF§ (Kaye 2007, 168) L E Kogan. A V Korotayev. Epigraphic South Arabian Morphology. Alan S Kaye ed. 2007. Morphologies of Asia and Africa. Volume 1. Eisenbrauns. Winona Lake. §REF§ \"There is significant archaeological evidence of the abandonment of pagan temples toward the conclusion of the fourth century and of the almost complete disappearance of expressions of devotion to the old tribal gods shortly thereafter.\" §REF§ (Maroney 2010, 93) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ \"From the 4th century on the Himyarite kings were either full members or sympathizers of Judaism\" and the Jewish faith became \"the dominant religion\" in South Arabia. §REF§ (Tubach 2015, 363-365) Johann Jurgen Tubach. Aramaic Loanwords In Geez. Aaron Michael Butts. ed. 2015. Semitic Languages in Contact. BRILL. Leiden. §REF§ In the later fourth century there was a Jewish dynasty of kings known as the Tabbai'a. §REF§ (Haas 2014, 38-39) Christopher Haas. Geopolitics and Georgian Identity in Late Antiquity: The Dangerous World of Vakhtang Gorgasali. Tamar Nutsubidze. Cornelia B Horn. Basil Lourie. eds. 2014. Georgian Christian Thought and Its Cultural Context. Memorial Volume for the 125th Anniversary of Shalva Nutsubidze (1888-1969). BRILL. Leiden. §REF§ A list of Himyarite's known Jewish kings include: Yassirum Yohre'am (from 270 CE); 'Amr-Shlomo ben David (325-330 CE); Malki Kariba Juha'min (378-385 CE); Abu Kariba As'as (385-420 or 445 CE); Shurihbi'il Yakkuf (468-480 CE); Martad Ilan ('Judaized' 495-515 CE); Yusuf Ash'ar Dhu Nuwas (515-525 CE). §REF§ (Brook 2006, 264-265) Kevin Alan Brook. 2006. The Jews of Khazaria. Second Edition. Rowman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ §REF§ (Haas 2014, 38-39) Christopher Haas. Geopolitics and Georgian Identity in Late Antiquity: The Dangerous World of Vakhtang Gorgasali. Tamar Nutsubidze. Cornelia B Horn. Basil Lourie. eds. 2014. Georgian Christian Thought and Its Cultural Context. Memorial Volume for the 125th Anniversary of Shalva Nutsubidze (1888-1969). BRILL. Leiden. §REF§ The Himyarite army adopted Judaism as its official religion at the start of the fifth century CE. §REF§ (Brook 2006, 264-265) Kevin Alan Brook. 2006. The Jews of Khazaria. Second Edition. Rowman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ <br>Christianity also was present in Himyar at least from the first half of the 4th century §REF§ (Tubach 2015, 363-363) Johann Jurgen Tubach. Aramaic Loanwords In Geez. Aaron Michael Butts. ed. 2015. Semitic Languages in Contact. BRILL. Leiden. §REF§ when the Christian missionary Theophilus arrived and \"complained that he found a great number of Jews\". §REF§ (Maroney 2010, 93) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ By 350 CE Christian communities were becoming established and over the next 100 years, \"missionaries systematically converted many Arabian tribes from their traditional polytheistic practices to monotheistic Christianity\". §REF§ (Romano 2004, 13) Amy Romano. 2004. A Historical Atlas of Yemen. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. New York. §REF§ It is also suggested that the rulers were not Jewish but Monophysite Christians. According to Friedman (2006) Himyarite colonists, the Axumites, in the land of Cush (Ethiopia) \"which they renamed Axum ... converted to Monophysite Christianity at the beginning of the fourth century. Between 340 to 378, the Axumites returned to Yemen and imposed their rule and religion over the Himyarites. Although the interregnum was short-lived, the impact of the Axumites was very profound. Yemen was a Christian land, with churches and a cathedral in San'a, and all but one of the restored Himyarite monarchs (378-525) were Monophysite Christians. The lone heretic was Dhu-Nuwas who, for unknown reasons, hated Christians and converted to Judaism.\" §REF§ (Friedman 2006, 106) Saul S. Friedman. 2006. A History of the Middle East. McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Jefferson. §REF§ However, Christians appear to have been repressed due to a perceived association with influence of the Byzantine Empire: \"in the 470s ... a priest named Azqir was executed for active proselytisation in Najran\". §REF§ (Hoyland 2001, 51) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London. §REF§ Hitti also mentions the 340-378 CE period of Abyssinian rule. §REF§ (Hitti 2002, 60) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ <br>An inscription dated to 378 CE claimed \"the completion of buildings by a Himyar monarch had been accomplished 'through the power of their lord of sky and heaven,' and phrases such as 'the owner of the sky and earth,' and the expression 'the Merciful' also were used. §REF§ (Maroney 2010, 93) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ It has been suggested that the Himyarite \"profession of monotheism, and later full-fledged Judaism, distanced the Himyarites from the Christianity of the Byzantines and their Ethiopian allies and the Zoroastrianism of the Persians\" §REF§ (Maroney 2010, 93) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ so that their strategically located state had an independent or neutral identity. Written sources mention the presence of synagogues in Zafar and Najran. §REF§ (Haas 2014, 38-39) Christopher Haas. Geopolitics and Georgian Identity in Late Antiquity: The Dangerous World of Vakhtang Gorgasali. Tamar Nutsubidze. Cornelia B Horn. Basil Lourie. eds. 2014. Georgian Christian Thought and Its Cultural Context. Memorial Volume for the 125th Anniversary of Shalva Nutsubidze (1888-1969). BRILL. Leiden. §REF§ <br>As trade revenues flatlined, the increasing persecution and then massacre of Christians by king Dhu Nuwas §REF§ (Burrows 2010, xxiii) Robert D Burrows. 2010. Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Second Edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ lead to a foreign intervention. The Byzantine Empire in alliance with the Aksumite Kingdom invaded the Himyarite kingdom and Dhu Nuwas was removed. Himyar and the Red Sea Coast was thereafter ruled directly by the Christian Ethiopians until the Persian conquest in 570 CE, interrupted by the Christian Ethiopian governor-general Abraha's declaration of independence between 550-553 CE. §REF§ (Caton 2013, 47) Steven C Caton ed. 2013. Yemen. ABC-Clio. Santa Barbara §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 12, "name": "Yemeni Coastal Plain", "subregion": "Arabia", "longitude": "43.315739000000", "latitude": "14.850891000000", "capital_city": "Sanaa", "nga_code": "YE", "fao_country": "Yemen", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 44, "name": "Arabia", "subregions_list": "Arabian Peninsula", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 523, "year_from": 386, "year_to": 446, "description": "\"The Northern Wei forces under Taiwudi's command reached Chang'an during the second month of 446. In the course of the campaign, some soldiers, grazing their horses in fields belonging to a Buddhist monastery (the source fails to name it), discovered that it was full of weapons. This proved to be the spark that ignited one of China's largest and most devastating government suppressions of Buddhism. [...] An official named Cui Hao Sia (fl. 438-448), who was a patron of Taoism, then proceeded to recommend the total eradication of Buddhism, and one month later Taiwudi issued an edict designed to implement just such a policy. The emperor's edict was implemented with brutal efficiency, particularly in and around Chang'an. Sources like Hui-jiao's (497-554) Biographies of Eminent Monks graphically describe how local monasteries were razed to the ground. Monks were ordered to return to lay life, and those who refused were summarily executed.\"§REF§(Shufen 2002: 1-2) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/87H9K47B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 87H9K47B </b></a>§REF§ \"The ascendance of the Daoists was short - lived, as Kou ’ s death in 448 was soon followed by the execution in 450 of the prime minister Cui Hao — who had introduced Kou Qianzhi at court and who played a major part in establishing the Daoist state — and by emperor Taiwu ’ s death in 452. Later northern emperors reverted to more inclusive policies, but all followed Taiwu ’ s example and “ received registers ” during their reigns.\" §REF§(Raz 2012: 72) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QMGMQBVN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QMGMQBVN </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Gov_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "CnNWei*", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534, "long_name": "Northern Wei", "new_name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Northern Wei dynasty (Tuoba or Bei Wei) unified northern China during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ Before unification under the Northern Wei, the northern region was ruled by the Sixteen Barbarian States that had risen up when the Western Jin fled to the south. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ The Northern Wei conquered Northern Yan and Northern Liang to unify the north. §REF§ (Xiong 2009, 384) Xiong, V C. 2009. Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Scarecrow Press, Inc., Plymouth. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong</a>. §REF§ During Northern Wei rule, Tuoba continued to expand its territory. By 439 CE the dynasty controlled Henan, Hebei, and parts of Shaanxi, Manchuria, Gansu, and Sichuan. §REF§ “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a> §REF§ At its peak the territory of the Northern Wei expanded from the Tarim Basin to the Yellow Sea, and from the northern steppe to edge of territory of the Southern dynasties. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ In 500 CE, the Northern Wei territory encompassed 1.7 million square kilometers. §REF§ (Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet) §REF§ <br>The rulers of the Northern Wei belonged to the Tuoba tribe of the Xianbei northern steppe federation. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ The Tuoba language was close to Turkish, and the non-Han Chinese rulers were first seen as foreign invaders. §REF§ “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a> §REF§ In the late 400s the Tuoba Sinicized their customs, language, and government, and moved their capital to Luoyang. §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a> §REF§ Buddhism was upheld as a state religion for most of the Northern Wei. The Buddhist caves of Yungang and Longmen were constructed during the period. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ In the early 500s, Luoyang had over one thousand monasteries and number of mansions and large palaces. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 91) Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8</a> §REF§ <br>The fall of the Northern Wei was due to a civil war caused by rebellions in garrisons in the northern frontier §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a> §REF§ The rival army factions spilt the dynasty into Eastern and Western Wei in 535 CE. §REF§ (Xiong 2009, 384) Xiong, V C. 2009. Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Scarecrow Press, Inc., Plymouth. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In the Northern Dynasties, nobles and landowners often had vesting holdings with dependent servants and slaves who did not pay taxes. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ The Northern Wei government attempted to break up these large holdings to reduce the power of provincial nobles. The government deported over 400,000 dependent peasants to unused land near the first capital of Pingcheng. §REF§ “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a> §REF§ The Northern Wei also instituted an equal-fields system in which the state owned all land and individuals were given certain allotments for life. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 91) Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8</a> §REF§ <br>In the late 400s, the Northern Wei moved the capital to Luoyang and began to create a more Chinese-style state. §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a> §REF§ The Tuoba relied on Chinese civil servants to assist with governance. §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a> §REF§ <br>The population of the Northern Wei dynasty was 32 million in 500 CE. §REF§ (Graff 2002, 127)Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA</a> §REF§ The second Wei capital of Luoyang had a population of 600,000 at its peak. §REF§ (Graff 2002, 98)Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-04T15:48:35.302300Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 524, "year_from": 446, "year_to": 452, "description": "\"The Northern Wei forces under Taiwudi's command reached Chang'an during the second month of 446. In the course of the campaign, some soldiers, grazing their horses in fields belonging to a Buddhist monastery (the source fails to name it), discovered that it was full of weapons. This proved to be the spark that ignited one of China's largest and most devastating government suppressions of Buddhism. [...] An official named Cui Hao Sia (fl. 438-448), who was a patron of Taoism, then proceeded to recommend the total eradication of Buddhism, and one month later Taiwudi issued an edict designed to implement just such a policy. The emperor's edict was implemented with brutal efficiency, particularly in and around Chang'an. Sources like Hui-jiao's (497-554) Biographies of Eminent Monks graphically describe how local monasteries were razed to the ground. Monks were ordered to return to lay life, and those who refused were summarily executed.\"§REF§(Shufen 2002: 1-2) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/87H9K47B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 87H9K47B </b></a>§REF§ \"The ascendance of the Daoists was short - lived, as Kou ’ s death in 448 was soon followed by the execution in 450 of the prime minister Cui Hao — who had introduced Kou Qianzhi at court and who played a major part in establishing the Daoist state — and by emperor Taiwu ’ s death in 452. Later northern emperors reverted to more inclusive policies, but all followed Taiwu ’ s example and “ received registers ” during their reigns.\" §REF§(Raz 2012: 72) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QMGMQBVN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QMGMQBVN </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Gov_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "mftvr", "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "CnNWei*", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534, "long_name": "Northern Wei", "new_name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Northern Wei dynasty (Tuoba or Bei Wei) unified northern China during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ Before unification under the Northern Wei, the northern region was ruled by the Sixteen Barbarian States that had risen up when the Western Jin fled to the south. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ The Northern Wei conquered Northern Yan and Northern Liang to unify the north. §REF§ (Xiong 2009, 384) Xiong, V C. 2009. Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Scarecrow Press, Inc., Plymouth. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong</a>. §REF§ During Northern Wei rule, Tuoba continued to expand its territory. By 439 CE the dynasty controlled Henan, Hebei, and parts of Shaanxi, Manchuria, Gansu, and Sichuan. §REF§ “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a> §REF§ At its peak the territory of the Northern Wei expanded from the Tarim Basin to the Yellow Sea, and from the northern steppe to edge of territory of the Southern dynasties. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ In 500 CE, the Northern Wei territory encompassed 1.7 million square kilometers. §REF§ (Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet) §REF§ <br>The rulers of the Northern Wei belonged to the Tuoba tribe of the Xianbei northern steppe federation. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ The Tuoba language was close to Turkish, and the non-Han Chinese rulers were first seen as foreign invaders. §REF§ “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a> §REF§ In the late 400s the Tuoba Sinicized their customs, language, and government, and moved their capital to Luoyang. §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a> §REF§ Buddhism was upheld as a state religion for most of the Northern Wei. The Buddhist caves of Yungang and Longmen were constructed during the period. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ In the early 500s, Luoyang had over one thousand monasteries and number of mansions and large palaces. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 91) Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8</a> §REF§ <br>The fall of the Northern Wei was due to a civil war caused by rebellions in garrisons in the northern frontier §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a> §REF§ The rival army factions spilt the dynasty into Eastern and Western Wei in 535 CE. §REF§ (Xiong 2009, 384) Xiong, V C. 2009. Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Scarecrow Press, Inc., Plymouth. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In the Northern Dynasties, nobles and landowners often had vesting holdings with dependent servants and slaves who did not pay taxes. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ The Northern Wei government attempted to break up these large holdings to reduce the power of provincial nobles. The government deported over 400,000 dependent peasants to unused land near the first capital of Pingcheng. §REF§ “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a> §REF§ The Northern Wei also instituted an equal-fields system in which the state owned all land and individuals were given certain allotments for life. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 91) Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8</a> §REF§ <br>In the late 400s, the Northern Wei moved the capital to Luoyang and began to create a more Chinese-style state. §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a> §REF§ The Tuoba relied on Chinese civil servants to assist with governance. §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a> §REF§ <br>The population of the Northern Wei dynasty was 32 million in 500 CE. §REF§ (Graff 2002, 127)Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA</a> §REF§ The second Wei capital of Luoyang had a population of 600,000 at its peak. §REF§ (Graff 2002, 98)Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-04T15:48:35.302300Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 525, "year_from": 453, "year_to": 557, "description": "\"The Northern Wei forces under Taiwudi's command reached Chang'an during the second month of 446. In the course of the campaign, some soldiers, grazing their horses in fields belonging to a Buddhist monastery (the source fails to name it), discovered that it was full of weapons. This proved to be the spark that ignited one of China's largest and most devastating government suppressions of Buddhism. [...] An official named Cui Hao Sia (fl. 438-448), who was a patron of Taoism, then proceeded to recommend the total eradication of Buddhism, and one month later Taiwudi issued an edict designed to implement just such a policy. The emperor's edict was implemented with brutal efficiency, particularly in and around Chang'an. Sources like Hui-jiao's (497-554) Biographies of Eminent Monks graphically describe how local monasteries were razed to the ground. Monks were ordered to return to lay life, and those who refused were summarily executed.\"§REF§(Shufen 2002: 1-2) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/87H9K47B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 87H9K47B </b></a>§REF§ \"The ascendance of the Daoists was short - lived, as Kou ’ s death in 448 was soon followed by the execution in 450 of the prime minister Cui Hao — who had introduced Kou Qianzhi at court and who played a major part in establishing the Daoist state — and by emperor Taiwu ’ s death in 452. Later northern emperors reverted to more inclusive policies, but all followed Taiwu ’ s example and “ received registers ” during their reigns.\" §REF§(Raz 2012: 72) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QMGMQBVN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QMGMQBVN </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Gov_vio_freq_rel_grp", "coded_value": "vr", "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "CnNWei*", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534, "long_name": "Northern Wei", "new_name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Northern Wei dynasty (Tuoba or Bei Wei) unified northern China during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ Before unification under the Northern Wei, the northern region was ruled by the Sixteen Barbarian States that had risen up when the Western Jin fled to the south. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ The Northern Wei conquered Northern Yan and Northern Liang to unify the north. §REF§ (Xiong 2009, 384) Xiong, V C. 2009. Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Scarecrow Press, Inc., Plymouth. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong</a>. §REF§ During Northern Wei rule, Tuoba continued to expand its territory. By 439 CE the dynasty controlled Henan, Hebei, and parts of Shaanxi, Manchuria, Gansu, and Sichuan. §REF§ “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a> §REF§ At its peak the territory of the Northern Wei expanded from the Tarim Basin to the Yellow Sea, and from the northern steppe to edge of territory of the Southern dynasties. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ In 500 CE, the Northern Wei territory encompassed 1.7 million square kilometers. §REF§ (Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet) §REF§ <br>The rulers of the Northern Wei belonged to the Tuoba tribe of the Xianbei northern steppe federation. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ The Tuoba language was close to Turkish, and the non-Han Chinese rulers were first seen as foreign invaders. §REF§ “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a> §REF§ In the late 400s the Tuoba Sinicized their customs, language, and government, and moved their capital to Luoyang. §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a> §REF§ Buddhism was upheld as a state religion for most of the Northern Wei. The Buddhist caves of Yungang and Longmen were constructed during the period. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ In the early 500s, Luoyang had over one thousand monasteries and number of mansions and large palaces. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 91) Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8</a> §REF§ <br>The fall of the Northern Wei was due to a civil war caused by rebellions in garrisons in the northern frontier §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a> §REF§ The rival army factions spilt the dynasty into Eastern and Western Wei in 535 CE. §REF§ (Xiong 2009, 384) Xiong, V C. 2009. Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Scarecrow Press, Inc., Plymouth. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In the Northern Dynasties, nobles and landowners often had vesting holdings with dependent servants and slaves who did not pay taxes. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ The Northern Wei government attempted to break up these large holdings to reduce the power of provincial nobles. The government deported over 400,000 dependent peasants to unused land near the first capital of Pingcheng. §REF§ “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a> §REF§ The Northern Wei also instituted an equal-fields system in which the state owned all land and individuals were given certain allotments for life. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 91) Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8</a> §REF§ <br>In the late 400s, the Northern Wei moved the capital to Luoyang and began to create a more Chinese-style state. §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a> §REF§ The Tuoba relied on Chinese civil servants to assist with governance. §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a> §REF§ <br>The population of the Northern Wei dynasty was 32 million in 500 CE. §REF§ (Graff 2002, 127)Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA</a> §REF§ The second Wei capital of Luoyang had a population of 600,000 at its peak. §REF§ (Graff 2002, 98)Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-04T15:48:35.302300Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }