Polity Suprapolity Relations List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Suprapolity Relations.
GET /api/general/polity-suprapolities/?ordering=polity&page=3
{ "count": 393, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/general/polity-suprapolities/?ordering=polity&page=4", "previous": "https://seshatdata.com/api/general/polity-suprapolities/?ordering=polity&page=2", "results": [ { "id": 42, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " There is no evidence for supra-polity relations in the Badari culture.<br>", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 510, "name": "EgBadar", "start_year": -4400, "end_year": -3800, "long_name": "Badarian", "new_name": "eg_badarian", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Badarian, a Neolithic archaeological culture located in Upper Egypt and dating from c. 4400 to 3300 BCE, was first described in 1928 by archaeologists Guy Brunton and Gertrude Caton-Thompson, who excavated in the Badari district near Assyut. §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 138) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. <i>Journal of World Prehistory</i> 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ Its relationship to an earlier culture, called the Tasian, is unclear, §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ but there is some evidence to link it to the later Naqada I period in Upper Egypt. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Little is known of the everyday lives of the people who occupied the Badarian sites: our information comes mainly from the numerous grave sites in the region around Assyut.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Research on Badarian sites has yielded a total of about 600 graves and 40 poorly documented settlements. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The culture was first identified in the el-Badari region, near the modern city of Sohag, but several small sites near the villages of Qau el-Kebir, Hammamiya, Mostagedda, and Matmar are also categorized as Badarian. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Characteristic Badarian material culture has also been discovered much further south at Mahgar Dendera, Armant, Elkab, and Hierakonpolis, as well as to the east of the Nile in the Wadi Hammamat. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>The archaeology of the period has inevitably been affected by the flooding of the Nile over the millennia: any larger, more permanent settlements were likely situated close to the great river and subsequently washed away or covered with alluvium. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Surviving remains come from raised desert spurs and include 'huts and windbreaks associated with hearths and large, well-shaped granary pits or silos'. §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 153) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. <i>Journal of World Prehistory</i> 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ A Badarian settlement at Deir Tasa covered an area of about 5000 square metres. §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 153) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. <i>Journal of World Prehistory</i> 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ At the Seshat standard of 50-200 inhabitants per hectare, this gives us an estimated population between the range of 25 and 100 inhabitants.<br>Evidence from Badarian settlements shows that the people who occupied these sites were primarily engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry, §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ but we know trade also occurred. Badarians imported raw materials like wood, turquoise, shells and ivory and exchanged goods with groups from as far away as Palestine, the Red Sea and Syria. §REF§ (Trigger 1983, 29) Bruce G. Trigger. 1983. 'The Rise of Egyptian Civilization', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i> edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B Lloyd, 1-70. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Model boats found at the site of Merimda to the north 'suggest that boats and canoes were already in use [in Egypt] before 4500 B.C.' §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 157) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. <i>Journal of World Prehistory</i> 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ <br>Very little can be concluded about Badarian political and social structure, but analysis of grave goods shows that there was an unequal distribution of wealth, and that the wealthier graves tended to be kept separate within the cemeteries. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ However, no monumental remains have been found so it is likely that higher-status members of society did not command a significant labour force.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 139, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 481, "name": "IqBazi*", "start_year": -1005, "end_year": -986, "long_name": "Bazi Dynasty", "new_name": "iq_bazi_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "This period begins with the ascension of the founder of the Bazi dynasty, Eulmash-shakin-shumi in 1005 BCE after a turbulent period of famine and invasions. §REF§ (Brinkman, 297) Brinkman, J.A. 1982. “Babylonia.” In <i>The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 3, Part 1: The Prehistory of the Balkans, the Middle East and the Aegean World, Tenth to Eighth Centuries B.C.</i>, edited by John Boardman, I.E.S. Edwards, N.G.L. Hammond, and E. Sollberger, 282-312. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWUWJEQ3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWUWJEQ3</a>. §REF§ <br>There were four main settlement types during this period: the capital city of Babylon, secondary provincial cities, smaller towns, and villages. Although the capital city was Babylon, it was the city of Kar-Marduk where the king resided, potentially as this was located in a less vulnerable area. §REF§ Liverani, M. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. p.364-370 §REF§ <br><br/>Although all settlements were joined under the king, political and economic crisis led to all major cities running their own affairs and so they held some level of autonomy. Temples acted as the centres of resources, policy and activity in each area and the sanga / shangum (chief priest) was an administrative as well as religious role. §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 471) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. <i>The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy</i>. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (McIntosh 2005: 206) McIntosh, J. 2005. <i>Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective</i>. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD</a>. §REF§ <br>Written records, scripts, poems, religious texts and ‘scientific’ literature increased during this period.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 8, "name": "Southern Mesopotamia", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "44.420000000000", "latitude": "32.470000000000", "capital_city": "Babylon (Hillah)", "nga_code": "IQ", "fao_country": "Iraq", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 62, "name": "Mesopotamia", "subregions_list": "Iraq, Kuwait", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 71, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 447, "name": "FrBeakr", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2000, "long_name": "Beaker Culture", "new_name": "fr_beaker_eba", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "In the late 3rd millennium BCE, new forms of material culture spread across the former megalithic zone of Neolithic Europe. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 55) McIntosh, J. 2006. <i>Handbook to Life in Prehistoric Europe.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B5R92FJH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B5R92FJH</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Sherratt 1994, 250) Sherratt, Andrew. 1994. \"The emergence of elites: earlier Bronze Age Europe, 2500-1300 BC.\" in B. Cunliffe (ed.) <i>The Oxford illustrated prehistory of Europe</i>: 244-276. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Milisauskas and Kruk 2002, 252) Milisauskas, Sarunas, and Janusz Kruk. 2002. “Late Neolithic Crises, Collapse, New Ideologies, and Economies, 3500/3000-2200/2000 BC.” In European Prehistory: A Survey, edited by Sarunas Milisauskas, 247-69. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ</a>. §REF§ The Beaker, or Bell-Beaker, §REF§ (Milisauskas and Kruk 2002, 248) Milisauskas, Sarunas, and Janusz Kruk. 2002. “Late Neolithic Crises, Collapse, New Ideologies, and Economies, 3500/3000-2200/2000 BC.” In European Prehistory: A Survey, edited by Sarunas Milisauskas, 247-69. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ</a>. §REF§ phenomenon is named after a characteristic drinking vessel, which had an inverted bell shape and was decorated with incisions. §REF§ (Sherratt 1994, 250-251) Sherratt, Andrew. 1994. \"The emergence of elites: earlier Bronze Age Europe, 2500-1300 BC.\" in B. Cunliffe (ed.) <i>The Oxford illustrated prehistory of Europe</i>: 244-276. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM</a>. §REF§ Other features of this cultural 'package' include individual burials in round mounds, sets of weapons and metals, and other precious items. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ <br>The phenomenon started in what is now the Netherlands and expanded into Britain, Brittany, southern Spain and then into most of continental France, Belgium, Switzerland and Western Europe in the form of small pockets of activity. §REF§ (Sherratt 1994, 246) Sherratt, Andrew. 1994. \"The emergence of elites: earlier Bronze Age Europe, 2500-1300 BC.\" in B. Cunliffe (ed.) <i>The Oxford illustrated prehistory of Europe</i>: 244-276. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Milisauskas and Kruk 2002, 214) Milisauskas, Sarunas, and Janusz Kruk. 2002. “Late Neolithic Crises, Collapse, New Ideologies, and Economies, 3500/3000-2200/2000 BC.” In European Prehistory: A Survey, edited by Sarunas Milisauskas, 247-69. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Beaker society was organized into myriad stratified polities of varying sizes. Some were composed of small, dispersed communities with 10 to 20 domestic units, §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 25) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ but larger groups could gather into fortified settlements: Los Millares in Spain was home to 1000-1500 people. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ The Beaker culture is also associated with demographic growth in Europe, as the small-scale polities moved into previously marginal lands. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ <br>The spread of this material culture has been interpreted as evidence for a wide set of circulation networks, fuelled by elite demand for prestige goods. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ The items may have been exchanged on the occasion of social rituals consolidating the power of emerging leaders. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ In this interpretation, the archaeologically visible spread of Beaker culture would not be tied to immigration but to the emergence of mobile ways of life, §REF§ (Sherratt 1994, 250-251) Sherratt, Andrew. 1994. \"The emergence of elites: earlier Bronze Age Europe, 2500-1300 BC.\" in B. Cunliffe (ed.) <i>The Oxford illustrated prehistory of Europe</i>: 244-276. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM</a>. §REF§ with independent leaders affirming their belonging to a wider cultural sphere through the consumption and display of valuable items. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ <br>Beaker people built on the legacy of their early Neolithic predecessors, reusing and modifying ceremonial structures such as Stonehenge. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 28) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ However they distinguished themselves through their burial customs, preferring single burials in grave pits to passage and gallery graves. In certain areas, such as the Iberian Peninsula or southern France, they occasionally reused ancient megalithic structures. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 28-29) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-04-15T15:39:50.374042Z", "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 89, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 99, "name": "GbEmpr2", "start_year": 1850, "end_year": 1968, "long_name": "British Empire II", "new_name": "gb_british_emp_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Here, we are interested in the sixty years between the British Empire's loss of its American colonies in 1780s, to the Chartist Movement in the 1830s-1840s.<br>The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, which ruled over the rest of this polity, was a constitutional monarchy. Governors, Proconsuls, and Viceroys were tasked with translating directives from London into forms that were suited conditions in the colonies. §REF§ (Burroughs 1999) Peter Burroughs. Imperial institutions and the Government of Empire. Andrew Porter. ed. 1999. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for the entire empire could be found specifically for this period, but according to contemporary sources it reached a population of 284,110,693 in the 1870s. §REF§ (Bartholomew 1877, v) John Bartholomew. 1877. Atlas of the British empire throughout the world. George Philip and Son. London. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-11-20T11:00:58.713708Z", "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 214, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "uncoded", "polity": { "id": 35, "name": "KhMekBA", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -501, "long_name": "Bronze Age Cambodia", "new_name": "kh_cambodia_ba", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Provide a descriptive paragraph detailing the key features of the polity, which will help understanding the codes below.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 17, "name": "Cambodian Basin", "subregion": "Siam", "longitude": "103.866700000000", "latitude": "13.412500000000", "capital_city": "Angkor Wat", "nga_code": "KH", "fao_country": "Cambodia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 41, "name": "Mainland", "subregions_list": "Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 215, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "uncoded", "polity": { "id": 36, "name": "KhMekIA", "start_year": -500, "end_year": 224, "long_name": "Bronze Age Cambodia", "new_name": "kh_cambodia_ia", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Provide a descriptive paragraph detailing the key features of the polity, which will help understanding the codes below.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 17, "name": "Cambodian Basin", "subregion": "Siam", "longitude": "103.866700000000", "latitude": "13.412500000000", "capital_city": "Angkor Wat", "nga_code": "KH", "fao_country": "Cambodia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 41, "name": "Mainland", "subregions_list": "Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 373, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "\"At the dawn of the eighteenth century the kingdoms surrounding central Rwanda in a half-circle from the northeast to the southwest that maintained direct contact with the Nyiginya state were Ndorwa or Mpororo, Mubari, Karagwe, Gisaka, Bugesera, and, a little later, Burundi. [...] Most of the time hostile relations prevailed among all these kingdoms. They usually fought each other in order to rustle cattle, but sometimes also to increase their territory. They welcomed fugitives from the neighboring kingdoms and sometimes gave shelter to foreign princes or kings from these kingdoms, especially during succession struggles. Sometimes two kingdoms allied themselves against a third one. But one does not find any systematic pattern of alliance among the kingdoms, not even on the order of my neighbor is my enemy and my neighbor’s-neighbor is my friend.\" §REF§(Vansina 2004: 110-111) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5J4MRHUB/collection.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Supra_polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 694, "name": "Bugesera", "start_year": 1700, "end_year": 1799, "long_name": "Bugesera", "new_name": "rw_bugesera_k", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_EAST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 2, "name": "East Africa", "subregions_list": "Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 154, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Daylamites were foot soldiers but \"a purely Daylamite army was not really effective since they had to find allies, usually Turks, sometimes Kurds, who could provide the cavalry to make a balanced fighting unit.\"§REF§(Kennedy 2004, 211) Kennedy, Hugh N. 2004. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. Second edition. Pearson Longman. Harlow.§REF§<br>\"Marriage links were an important way of consolidating alliances and links through the female line were more important than in much of Islamic society. This was especially true in the Buyid kingdom of Rayy, where traditional Daylamite customs seem to have been less affected by Islamic norms than in Fars or Iraq.\"§REF§(Kennedy 2004, 211) Kennedy, Hugh N. 2004. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. Second edition. Pearson Longman. Harlow.§REF§<br>\"the alliance of Buyid princes and Farsi landowners ... was to be the foundation of the Buyid state\"§REF§(Kennedy 2004, 213) Kennedy, Hugh N. 2004. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. Second edition. Pearson Longman. Harlow.§REF§<br>\"Buyid and Kakuyid contenders had often actually welcomed the Seljuks as a means of defeating internal enemies.\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 123) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "polity": { "id": 362, "name": "IrBuyid", "start_year": 932, "end_year": 1062, "long_name": "Buyid Confederation", "new_name": "ir_buyid_confederation", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Buyid dynasty originated from Shahrud Valley in northwestern Iran. Ali b. Buya, a soldier in the Abbasid state, began taking territory by forced after being removed from his position as administrator of Karaj. By 934 CE, he had reached Fars. §REF§ (Busse 1975, 253-254) H Busse. 1975. Iran under the Buyids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq's. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.253-4 §REF§ In 945 CE the Buyids claimed Baghdad and Basra creating for themselves a stable base of power in Mesopotamia. §REF§ (Donohue 2003, 2-11) J J Donohue. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq 334H./945 to 403H./1012. Leiden: Brill. p. 2-11 §REF§ <br>The Buyid ruler was known as an amir or shahanshah, the latter \"more a recognition of seniority within the family than an office with authority\". §REF§ (Kennedy 2004) Hugh N Kennedy. 2004. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. Second edition. Pearson Longman. Harlow. §REF§ The Buyids were essentially a provincial military aristocracy with an army composed partly of Daylamite infantry and slave Turkish cavalry. The regiments of the Buyid Princes often fought one another while the central government increasingly became ineffectual. \"The Buyid state was divided into several appanages, of which Shiraz and Baghdad were the most important, each held by a different member of the family.\" §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 43) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh §REF§ <br>In theory the Buyid amirs were governors under the Abbasid caliph who remained in Baghdad with powers to appoint religious officials, §REF§ (Kennedy 2004, 216) Hugh N Kennedy. 2004. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. Second edition. Pearson Longman. Harlow. §REF§ and continued to be symbolically important (in Iraq) appearing on coinage and grants of land. Although Baghdad was the most important political, economic and religious center, whose amir's chief secretary of the bureaucracy was formally granted the title of vizier §REF§ (Donohue 2003, 140) John J Donohue. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq. BRILL §REF§ , Fars was the heartland of the empire, with all civil servants being drawn from there. §REF§ (Busse 1975, 271) H Busse. 1975. Iran under the Būyids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq's. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.271 §REF§ The Buyids replaced previous established bureaucratic families with Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians.<br>The Buyids paid their military using iqta holdings whereby \"in lieu of salary an amir would be granted the right to collect the taxes of a given area. An iqta could thus vary in size from a whole province to much smaller subdivision, to a single town or village.\" However, \"Under the Buyids, this system was widely credited with economic disaster, as absentee amirs sought to reap the swiftest possible profits before their iqta was removed them.\" §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 79) A C S Peacock. 2015. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ <br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 292, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "alliance<br>with Khazars §REF§(Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences. Personal Communication§REF§<br>with Sassanid Persia 633 CE at Firaz against Arabs.§REF§(Uttridge and Spilling eds 2014, 180) Uttridge and Spilling eds. 2014. The Encyclopedia of Warfare. Amber Books Ltd.§REF§<br>Amazigh were \"traditional\" allies for the Byzantines.§REF§(Uttridge and Spilling eds 2014, 183) Uttridge and Spilling eds. 2014. The Encyclopedia of Warfare. Amber Books Ltd.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "TrByzM1", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866, "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "new_name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The first Byzantine period, which lasts from 632 CE in the reign of Heraclius (r.610-641 CE) to 866 CE at the end of the reign of Michael III (r.842-867 CE) §REF§ (Haussig 1971, Chronological Table) H W Haussig. J M Hussey, trans. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ was in many ways characterized by the Greek response to the Arab expansion. This and other developments led to a dramatic transformation of Byzantium with regard to dimension and complexity of the society. §REF§ (Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences §REF§ <br>The signature change was the reform of Byzantine control of the regions with the introduction of themes introduced under Constantine IV 668-685 CE §REF§ (Haussig 1971, Chronological Table) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ headed by commanders called strategi. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 178) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ This was a progressive development as provinces still existed with the first themes, the last European theme (Nicopolis or Dalmatia) being set up about 900 CE. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 96-97) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ <br>Reform of the regions into themes was directly reflected with administrative reforms at the capital. At the professional imperial administration in Constantinople, taxation and military administration was 'fused' about 680 CE into a single office called 'logothete tou stratiotikou.' \"In this office, taxation and military administration were made the responsibility of one minister in the central government. The officials concerned with the muster rolls of the soldiers and with the collection of the annona were thus combined in a single functionary.\" §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 97-98) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ <br>From Justinian II (r.668-711 CE) the strategi gained powers of tax collection and each individual theme had a logothete who behaved like the logothete tou stratiotikou in Constantinople. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 98) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ \"Thus there grew up this fusion of military and civil authority which spread over the whole Empire with the introduction of the themes and undermined the control exercised by the state.\" §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 97) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ However, while control from the center was lost, the Byzantines gained the ability to more flexibly respond to external threats.<br>After the shock of losing 1 million km2 of territory by 700 CE to the expanding Islamic Caliphate the reforms eventually appear to have put the Byzantine state, and its 5 million inhabitants, on a stronger footing. While the 695-717 CE period was known for being a period of anarchy by the ninth century military success had slightly increased the land area to 520,000 km2. §REF§ (Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences) §REF§ Basileus Theophilus (r.829-842 CE) was able to finance a major construction spree. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 169) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-05-07T17:04:48.385331Z", "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 41, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 293, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "\"Emperors from the time of Basil II found it cheaper to call upon allies and dependents, such as Venice, to supply warships, than to pay for an expensive standing fleet at Constantinople.\"§REF§(Haldon 2008, 560) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>From 11th CE \"Byzantium had to depend more than before on its alliances with foreign peoples\".§REF§(Gregory 2010, 281) Gregory, Timothy E. 2010. A History of Byzantium. Wiley-Blackweel. Chichester.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "polity": { "id": 75, "name": "TrByzM2", "start_year": 867, "end_year": 1072, "long_name": "Byzantine Empire II", "new_name": "tr_byzantine_emp_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The phase of the Byzantine Empire from 867-1072 CE is commonly known as the Macedonian Dynasty (867-1056 CE), which the dates approximate. The Byzantine culture of the period was a military and aristocratic one with palaces serving \"not only as imperial residences but also as administrative centres. They were placed prominently in the centre of cities and surpassed all other public buildings in scale and ostentation.\" §REF§ (Bakirtzis 2008, 374) E Jeffreys. J Haldon. R Cormack. eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>In the previous period the Byzantines responded to the Arab conquests with the creation of themes, whose local commander governors could raise taxes, that enabled the Byzantine elites and their thematic armies to respond more rapidly to external threats with the result of less centralized control. In this era the powers of the themes were drawn back: the number of officials within the thematic administrations increased and by the end of the period the strategos, military governor, was replaced by a krites (judge). §REF§ (Cheynet 2008, 522) E Jeffreys. J Haldon. R Cormack. eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ In the early eleventh century Basil II brought in a professional army directed from Constantinople called the tagmata, which lead to the disappearance of the thematic armies. §REF§ (Cheynet 2008, 521) E Jeffreys. J Haldon. R Cormack. eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>The professional Byzantine civil service and palace staff was \"relatively small, and mostly composed of humble clerks or custodians\", although there were some very rich bureaucrats and dignitaries. §REF§ (Treadgold 1997, 552) Warren Treadgold. 1997. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. Stanford. §REF§ In the 10th CE the most important official was the Grand Chamberlain, who worked in the Great Palace, and was especially influential during periods of regency or when the Emperor was on military campaign. §REF§ (Treadgold 1997, 550) Warren Treadgold. 1997. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. Stanford. §REF§ <br>A significant codification of Byzantine law occurred in this period when Leo VI (886-912 CE) in six volumes and sixty books (variously called the Exavivlos or the Vasilika (Basilika)) presented in the Greek language \"virtually all the laws in the Justinian Corpus, arranged here (as it had not been before) in a systematic manner.\" §REF§ (Gregory 2010, 253-254) Timothy E Gregory. 2010. A History of Byzantium. Second Edition. Wiley-Blackwell. Chichester. §REF§ A resurgence of literature began, in the early ninth CE, after the Iconoclasm had motivated copying and reading of religious literature. Intellectuals began to receive government positions under \"iconoclast emperors\". Emperor Theophilus founded Magnaura Palace school, \"the empire's first known public school since the reign of Heraclius.\" §REF§ (Treadgold 1997, 559-561) Warren Treadgold. 1997. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. Stanford. §REF§ <br>The peak of Byzantine military power and international prestige was under Emperor Basil II who conquered the Bulgarian Empire and continued Byzantine expansion into Syria and Armenia. §REF§ (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-08T15:48:32.982101Z", "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }