Polity Suprapolity Relations List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Suprapolity Relations.
GET /api/general/polity-suprapolities/?ordering=other_polity&page=3
{ "count": 393, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/general/polity-suprapolities/?ordering=other_polity&page=4", "previous": "https://seshatdata.com/api/general/polity-suprapolities/?ordering=other_polity&page=2", "results": [ { "id": 397, "year_from": 1362, "year_to": 1364, "description": "Haakon VI King of Norway ruled the Kingdom of Sweden in personal union from 1362–1364.§REF§Haakon VI Magnusson | Norwegian Royalty, Scandinavian Union, Kalmar Union | Britannica. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PHXQI334\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PHXQI334</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-05-22T17:47:49.711807Z", "modified_date": "2024-05-22T17:47:49.711852Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "personal union", "polity": { "id": 116, "name": "NorKing", "start_year": 1262, "end_year": 1396, "long_name": "Kingdom of Norway II", "new_name": "no_norway_k_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kingdom of Norway (also Norwegian Empire or Old Norse <i>Noregsveldi</i>) originally covered the west coast of Norway and was allied with an earldom in Þrándheimur (modern Trøndelag). It then expanded to eastern Norway in the middle of the 11th century CE, around Viken and modern-day Oslo, including Båhuslen in modern Sweden, and northwards to Hålogaland, Lofoten and Finnmark.<br>Orkney and Shetland became part of the kingdom as early as 875, according to legend, and became an earldom. The Faroe Islands became part of the kingdom of Norway in 1035 CE, and the Hebrides and Man in the 12th century. Iceland and Greenland were added to its territory in 1256-64 and 1262 respectively. In 1266, however, Man and the Hebrides became part of the Kingdom of Scotland. The 'peak' of the kingdom was thus in the 1260s. Each part of the kingdom had its own assembly: four in Norway and a separate assembly for each of the islands or archipelagoes in the realm. Here the chieftains gathered yearly to discuss and decide on key matters for each assembly area. The Icelandic, Faroese and Man assemblies still exist.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The kingdom of Norway was originally a composite of kingdoms or earldoms, with the king of Norway a king of kings. Its extent and composition relied in large part on the fortunes of the royal dynasty, with repeated periods of partition by inheritance and reunification. A fully stable dynasty was only established in about 1240, after a long period of civil war. Royal power was instrumental in introducing Christianity to Norway around 1000, and the church was an important prop to royal power thereafter, providing the bureaucratic framework. The orientation of the Norwegian kingdom shifted after 1314, from North Atlantic expansion to an eastern emphasis, participating in intra-Scandinavian power struggles. In 1397 it joined the Kalmar Union, the kingdom covering the whole of the Swedish, Danish and Norwegian realms. From 1523 to 1814 it was a part of the Danish-Norwegian kingdom, and the Danish king was also the Norwegian king. The population reached about 400,000-600,000 in 1350, before the Black Death, but by 1520 repeated epidemics had reduced the population to around 120,000.<br><i>This description was provided by Árni Daniel Júlíusson and edited by Jenny Reddish.</i>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "JR: changing the end date from 1380 to 1396, taking it to just before the Kalmar Union. Variables need to be checked to see whether they still apply to the 1381-96 period", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-04-30T12:29:11.149067Z", "home_nga": { "id": 3, "name": "Iceland", "subregion": "Northern Europe", "longitude": "-21.891497000000", "latitude": "64.133088000000", "capital_city": "Reykjavik", "nga_code": "IS", "fao_country": "Iceland", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 17, "name": "Northern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": null, "other_polity": { "id": 868, "name": "sv_swedish_k_1", "start_year": 980, "end_year": 1396, "long_name": "Kingdom of Sweden I", "new_name": "sv_swedish_k_1", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": "Swedish Kingdom", "private_comment": "", "created_date": "2024-04-26T12:08:22.061440Z", "modified_date": "2024-04-30T12:37:04.170914Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 17, "name": "Northern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": null }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 378, "year_from": 1296, "year_to": 1306, "description": "Wenceslaus II and his son Wenceslaus III ruled Poland in personal union.§REF§Rosamond McKitterick, ed., The New Cambridge Medieval History (Cambridge [England] ; New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press, 1995).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SQR4J7RI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SQR4J7RI</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-03-17T19:58:34.611334Z", "modified_date": "2024-04-24T12:51:28.072977Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "personal union", "polity": { "id": 598, "name": "cz_bohemian_k_1", "start_year": 1198, "end_year": 1309, "long_name": "Kingdom of Bohemia - Přemyslid Dynasty", "new_name": "cz_bohemian_k_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kingdom of Bohemia under the Přemyslid dynasty from 1198 to 1309 CE was a period marked by significant development, territorial expansion, and the consolidation of royal power, which laid the foundational structures of the Bohemian state and its integration into the broader European medieval political landscape. This era witnessed the transformation of Bohemia from a duchy into a kingdom, with Prague emerging as a significant cultural and political center in Central Europe.§REF§Jaroslav Pánek and Oldřich Tůma, A History of the Czech Lands (Prague: Karolinum Press, 2009).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5MFK58ZP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5MFK58ZP</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe formal recognition of Bohemia as a kingdom came in 1198, when Duke Ottokar I assumed the title of King, a status confirmed by the Holy Roman Emperor. This elevation reflected not only the growing power and prestige of the Přemyslid rulers but also the strategic importance of Bohemia within the Holy Roman Empire.§REF§Jörg K. Hoensch, Geschichte Böhmens: von der slavischen Landnahme bis zur Gegenwart.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/APL977ZI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: APL977ZI</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Přemyslid dynasty, which traced its origins back to the 9th century, was instrumental in shaping the identity and political structures of the Bohemian state.§REF§Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Neue Deutsche Biographie.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2B7YCXT3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2B7YCXT3</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nOne of the most notable rulers of this period was Ottokar II (1253-1278), known as Ottokar the Great. His reign was characterized by ambitious territorial expansion, extending Bohemian control over adjacent regions, including Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, thereby significantly enhancing the kingdom's power and influence in Central Europe. Ottokar II's efforts to consolidate his rule and expand his territory brought him into conflict with other regional powers and the Holy Roman Emperor, leading to his eventual defeat and death at the Battle of Marchfeld in 1278.§REF§Hoensch, Přemysl Otakar II. von Böhmen.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LVNSK3MW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LVNSK3MW</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nDespite the dynastic challenges and occasional conflicts with the Holy Roman Empire, the Přemyslid dynasty succeeded in maintaining Bohemia's sovereignty and distinct identity within the imperial framework. The legal codifications and administrative reforms of this period laid the groundwork for the kingdom's future development.\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe end of the Přemyslid dynasty came in 1306, following the assassination of Wenceslaus III. The subsequent period saw the rise of the Luxembourg dynasty, which would continue to shape the kingdom's trajectory in the future.§REF§Hirschbiegel, Höfe und Residenzen im spätmittelalterlichen Reich.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R4DMTD9L\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: R4DMTD9L</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-02-06T12:13:29.036347Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 30, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach" }, "other_polity": { "id": 809, "name": "pl_piast_dyn_2", "start_year": 1139, "end_year": 1382, "long_name": "Polish Kingdom - Piast Dynasty Fragmented Period", "new_name": "pl_piast_dyn_2", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "When Bolesław III Wrymouth died on 28 October 1138, he was aware of the potential for conflict among his sons and devised a testament aiming to prevent the fragmentation of the kingdom. His will, known as the Testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LUJ3NYJU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU</b></a>§REF§, divided Poland among his sons, granting them hereditary duchies while trying to maintain some level of unity under the senioral principle. This principle established that the eldest member of the dynasty, holding the Seniorate Province with Kraków as its capital, would have a primacy over the other dukes and the right to be called the High Duke of Poland. The \"Senioral Principle\" was soon broken, leading to a period of nearly 200 years of disintegration known as feudal fragmentation which divided the Polish state into several semi-independent principalities without a single ruler governed by various branches of the Piast dynasty.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</b></a>§REF§ \r\nThe reunification of Poland under Władysław I in 14th century marked the end of fragmentation. His son, Casimir III the Great (1333-1370) strengthened royal authority. Casimir's reign, devoid of major external conflicts, allowed for significant internal development, including the founding of the University of Krakow in 1364, one of the oldest universities in Europe.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</b></a>§REF§\r\nThe end of the Piast dynasty in 1370, with the death of Casimir III, led to the initiation of the Angevin and later Jagiellonian dynasties, under which Poland entered into a union with Lithuania.§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LUJ3NYJU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "I expanded the end date of this polity to include the last personal union between Hungary and Poland during Louis I of Hungary's reign.", "created_date": "2024-02-28T14:45:23.434662Z", "modified_date": "2024-06-12T12:00:04.748967Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 25, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 300, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "alliance with West Turkestan polities second half 6th century<br>\"... Byzantine also visited West Turkestan including Sogdiana. Here too there were economic and political reasons to account for the opening of diplomatic relations with these peoples. For one thing it was imperative to safeguard the silk trade, and on the other hand there was the desire to encircle Persia in the political and military sense by means of an alliance with the Turks.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 103-104) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ \"... seven decades of close Byzantino-Turkic relations. The title of Caesar which survives in old Tibetan chronicles in the form of Gesar is yet another reminder in Central Asia of the days when the Byzantine Emperor bestowed on the Turkic khan the title of Caesar.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 104) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2025-02-14T13:46:56.512218Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "polity": { "id": 72, "name": "TrERom*", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 631, "long_name": "East Roman Empire", "new_name": "tr_east_roman_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "We begin our Eastern Roman Empire period in 395 CE, when it was permanently divided from what became the Western Roman Empire §REF§ (Morgan 2012) James F. Morgan. 2012. <i>The Roman Empire: Fall of the West, Survival of the East</i>. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. §REF§ §REF§ (Barnwell 1992, 1) P. S. Barnwell. 1992. <i>Emperor, Prefects, & Kings: The Roman West, 395‒565</i>. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. §REF§ and end it in 631 CE as the Arab expansion and other developments led to a dramatic social transformations in Byzantium.<br>A phase of 'stagflation' spanned the century between c. 450 and 541 CE, during which large estates became more influential, elites grew in number and formed mutually hostile factions, and 'sociopolitical instability increased'. §REF§ (Baker 2011, 245-46) David Baker. 2011. 'The Roman Dominate from the Perspective of Demographic-Structural Theory'. <i>Cliodynamics</i> 2 (2): 217-51. §REF§ Matters were made worse by an outbreak of plague in 541 CE, and further usurpations and civil wars in the 7th century made the staggering empire a ripe target for the Arab conquests. §REF§ (Baker 2011, 245-46) David Baker. 2011. 'The Roman Dominate from the Perspective of Demographic-Structural Theory'. <i>Cliodynamics</i> 2 (2): 217-51. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Christian emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire was the chief lawmaker and military commander but not the most important religious official - instead, in the pagan tradition of Byzantine ceremony, he himself was treated as divine. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 54-55) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. <i>History of Byzantine Civilization</i>, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ When he entered his <i>consistorium</i> (council), several curtains were raised to herald his arrival in the style of the eastern mystery religions. Meetings of the emperor's council were infused with an atmosphere of sanctity, and the historian H. W. Haussig has pointed out that many important decisions were in fact 'discussed and settled outside this body'. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 54-55) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. <i>History of Byzantine Civilization</i>, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ The most important religious official in Constantinople was the patriarch, who was chosen by the emperor; §REF§ (Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ the pope in Rome was the most important of the five patriarchs of the Roman Empire as a whole. §REF§ Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015, personal communication. §REF§ <br>Based in the palatial city of Constantinople, the emperor presided over a large professional bureaucracy that sought to intervene in most aspects of its citizens' lives. Departing from the old pattern of relative Roman disinterest in the formal codification of Roman law, the East Roman emperors in the 395‒631 CE period twice brought together and promulgated official legal codes that were sourced from the empire's Christian era (that is, since the time of Constantine the Great). The first of these was the <i>Codex Theodosianus</i> (439 CE), which was followed by the <i>Codex Justinianus</i> (534 CE). The Eastern Roman Empire also maintained a formal alliance with the Western Roman Empire, meaning that laws promulgated in one half of the empire had to be communicated to the other half and applied in both East and West. §REF§ (Millar 2006, 1) Fergus Millar. 2006. <i>A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief Under Theodosius II 408-450</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>Below the god-emperor was the office of praetorian prefect, which came with considerable temporal powers. The governmental reforms of 395 CE gave this official 'unlimited jurisdiction' on economic matters, §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 52) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. <i>History of Byzantine Civilization</i>, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ which he used to plan the Roman economy in a similar way to that of Egypt, which had been functioning well for six centuries. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 52) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. <i>History of Byzantine Civilization</i>, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ The praetorian prefect also supervised the postal system and public works, managed the guilds, and ran the production of arms and other manufactured goods as a state monopoly. He was responsible for the <i>annona</i> (food distribution) to the cities and army, and was given license to control prices in the cities and order new industrial production. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 52) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. <i>History of Byzantine Civilization</i>, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ The government had numerous other officials and departments, including a magister officiorum who, in addition to running the departments of protocol and foreign affairs and the palace guard, was also head of the 'political police (<i>schola agentium in rebus</i>)'. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 53) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. <i>History of Byzantine Civilization</i>, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ <br>In the 6th century, desperate economic times led to the payment of high officials and soldiers in luxury clothes, while manufactured goods and food were used as currency. Coinage was still in circulation but the proportion used as payment for salaries shrank considerably. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 100) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. <i>History of Byzantine Civilization</i>, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ The number of residents in Constantinople grew from about 300,000 in 400 CE to 500,000 a century later, but then fell back sharply to about 200,000 due to the troubles of the 6th century. The baseline population of the empire was about 15 million, which peaked at 20 million when times were still good in 500 CE.<br>Fifth-century Constantinople was a monumental city of great splendour and wealth: it possessed five imperial palaces, six <i>domus divinae Augustarum</i> ('mansions of the divine Augustae') belonging to empresses, three <i>domus nobilissimae</i> (mansions for the top nobility) and 4,388 <i>domus</i> mansions. §REF§ (Diehl 1923, 748) Charles Diehl. 1923. 'Byzantine Civilization', in <i>The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume IV: The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453)</i>, edited by J. R. Tanner, C. W. Previte-Orton and Z. N. Brooke, 745-77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Angelova 2015, 153-55) Diliana N. Angelova. 2015. <i>Sacred Founders: Women, Men, and Gods in the Discourse of Imperial Founding, Rome through Early Byzantium</i>. Oakland, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ The contemporary source (the 5th-century <i>Notitia urbis Constantinopolitanae</i>) also records 322 streets with 153 private baths. §REF§ (Diehl 1923, 748) Charles Diehl. 1923. 'Byzantine Civilization', in <i>The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume IV: The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453)</i>, edited by J. R. Tanner, C. W. Previte-Orton and Z. N. Brooke, 745-77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Angelova 2015, 153-155) Diliana N Angelova. 2015. <i>Sacred Founders: Women, Men, and Gods in the Discourse of Imperial Founding, Rome through Early Byzantium</i>. Oakland: University of California Press. §REF§ Public buildings included squares, baths, underground cisterns, aqueducts, shops, and entertainment buildings including theatres and hippodromes. §REF§ (Diehl 1923, 748) Charles Diehl. 1923. 'Byzantine Civilization', in <i>The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume IV: The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453)</i>, edited by J. R. Tanner, C. W. Previte-Orton and Z. N. Brooke, 745-77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Gladiatorial combat was banned as part of Constantine's programme of Christian moral reforms in 325 CE and disappeared sometime in the 5th century. The traditional Greek gymnasium, once a central institution in every Graeco-Roman city, where young men trained in athletics, had also fallen out of use but acrobatics was a profession and the nobility enjoyed various sports. §REF§ (Roueché 2008, 679) Charlotte Roueché. 2008. 'Entertainments, Theatre, and Hippodrome', in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies</i>, edited by E. Jeffreys, J. Haldon and R. Cormack, 677-84. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The most impressive large-scale public entertainments, provided by the state, were chariot races. These were held in Constantinople and other cities of the empire. §REF§ (Roueché 2008, 680) Charlotte Roueché. 2008. 'Entertainments, Theatre, and Hippodrome', in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies</i>, edited by E. Jeffreys, J. Haldon and R. Cormack, 677-84. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ At some point during this era, the government decreed that drinking booths should close at 7 pm to reduce alcohol-related disorder. §REF§ (Diehl 1923, 760) Charles Diehl. 1923. 'Byzantine Civilization', in <i>The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume IV: The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453)</i>, edited by J. R. Tanner, C. W. Previte-Orton and Z. N. Brooke, 745-77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": { "id": 468, "name": "UzSogdi", "start_year": 604, "end_year": 711, "long_name": "Sogdiana - City-States Period", "new_name": "uz_sogdiana_city_states", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "General description:<br>The Sogdian City States Period, also referred to by the names of the principal cities of the age, Bukhara and Samarkand dates to between 604 and 711CE. The period ends with the conquest of the region by the Umayyad Dynasty.§REF§(Marshak 1996, 242) Marshak, B. I. 1996. ‘Sughd and Adjacent Regions’. In B. A. Litvinsky (ed.), Co-editors: Zhang Guang-da and R. Shabani Samghabadi. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. The Crossroads of Civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Volume III. Paris: UNESCO. p.242<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD</a> §REF§<br>A number of City States rose to prominence in the Zarafshan and surrounding valleys, they formed alliances and competed amongst each other for control of the region .§REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 167) De la Vaissière, E. 2005. Sogdian Traders: a History. Translated by James Ward. Leiden; Boston: Brill. p.167 <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D</a> §REF§ Chef amongst these City States was Samarkand, which in the seventh century extended across the plateau of Afrasiab.§REF§(Marshak 1996, 244) Marshak, B. I. 1996. ‘Sughd and Adjacent Regions’. In B. A. Litvinsky (ed.), Co-editors: Zhang Guang-da and R. Shabani Samghabadi. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. The Crossroads of Civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Volume III. Paris: UNESCO. p.244<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD</a> §REF§<br>The height of this period can be considered to have occurred in mid the 7th century CE when the city of Samarkand was at the peak of its economic and culture production, symbolized by the creation of the Afrasiab paintings. §REF§(Frumkin 1970, 124) Frumkin, G. 1970. Archaeology in Soviet Central Asia. Leiden;Koln. Brill. p.124 <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/48WCJTCC\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/48WCJTCC</a> §REF§<br>Although the City States had achieved de facto independence after the fall of the Western Kaghanate, they were nominally allied to the Chinese T’ang dynasty, however the dynasty did not meaningfully hinder the Arab incursions.§REF§(Marshak 1996, 242) Marshak, B. I. 1996. ‘Sughd and Adjacent Regions’. In B. A. Litvinsky (ed.), Co-editors: Zhang Guang-da and R. Shabani Samghabadi. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. The Crossroads of Civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Volume III. Paris: UNESCO. p.242<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD</a> §REF§<br>Population and political organization:<br>Each city state was ruled by a king, conceived of as ‘first among equals’ who headed the administrative system which ran the state.§REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 167) De la Vaissière, E. 2005. Sogdian Traders: a History. Translated by James Ward. Leiden; Boston: Brill.p.167 <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D</a> §REF§ While there is clear evidence of a strong merchant class their relationship to the ruling elite remains unclear. §REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 168-169) De la Vaissière, E. 2005. Sogdian Traders: a History. Translated by James Ward. Leiden; Boston: Brill. pp.168-169 <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D</a> §REF§<br>Although there are no precise population figures the archaeological evidence indicates that the number of settlements, and thus population, in the region reached its height during this period.§REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 103-4) De La Vaissiere, Etienne. 2005. Sogdian Traders: A History. [trans James Ward] Leiden: Brill.p.103-4 <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 23, "name": "Sogdiana", "subregion": "Turkestan", "longitude": "66.938170000000", "latitude": "39.631284000000", "capital_city": "Samarkand", "nga_code": "UZ", "fao_country": "Uzbekistan", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 13, "name": "Turkestan", "subregions_list": "Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 97, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 17, "name": "Hawaii1", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1200, "long_name": "Hawaii I", "new_name": "us_hawaii_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Hawai'i, also known as the Big Island, is the largest island of the Hawaiian archipelago. Recent estimates for the date of initial settlement by Polynesian voyagers have varied from 800 to 1250 CE, but the latest Bayesian model, based on palaeoenvironmental data and a carefully defined set of archaeological radiocarbon dates, suggests that the archipelago was first colonized between 1000 and 1100. §REF§ (Athens, Rieth and Dye 2014) J. Stephen Athens, Timothy M. Rieth and Thomas S. Dye. 2014. 'A Paleoenvironmental and Archaeological Model-Based Age Estimate for the Colonization of Hawai'i'. <i>American Antiquity</i> 79(1): 144-55. §REF§ Our 'Hawaii 1' designates the earliest phase of Hawai'i's prehistory, from around 1000 to 1200, before most of the changes characteristic of Kirch's 'expansion period', including a rapid rise in population, took place. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 127) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>According to reconstructions of Hawaiki, the ancestral Polynesian homeland, ancient Polynesians recognized the authority of the <i>*ariki</i>, that is, the head of a lineage, who had both secular and sacred authority and was in charge of most, if not all, rituals. §REF§ (Kirch 2012, 45) Patrick V. Kirch. 2012. <i>A Shark Going Inland Is My Chief</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ However, a few thousand years separate Ancestral Polynesians from the earliest Hawaiians, and it is not clear how much the latter retained of the former's culture and sociopolitical organization. The earliest island-wide unitary kingdom on the Big Island emerged around 1580; §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 174) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ before then the Big Island was probably divided into several small, independent polities. §REF§ (Kirch 2016, personal communication) §REF§ <br>The founding population was probably about 100 people, due to the limited capacity of the canoes the first settlers likely used to reach the islands. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 129) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ This population probably grew somewhat between 1000 and 1200, but no up-to-date estimates could be found in the literature — an estimate of 20,000 inhabitants for the entire archipelago around 1100 dates to 1985, when the earliest phase of human occupation was thought to have begun around 600 CE. §REF§ (Kirch 1985, 302) Patrick V. Kirch. 1985. <i>Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory</i>. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 33, "name": "Big Island Hawaii", "subregion": "Polynesia", "longitude": "-155.916989000000", "latitude": "19.528931000000", "capital_city": "Kona", "nga_code": "USHI", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "Oceania-Australia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 30, "name": "Polynesia", "subregions_list": "Polynesia", "mac_region": { "id": 8, "name": "Oceania-Australia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 284, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 521, "name": "SdKusht", "start_year": -747, "end_year": -656, "long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period", "new_name": "eg_kushite", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Towards the end of the preceding Thebes-Libyan period, the northern reaches of the Nile River were invaded by Amun-worshipping Kushites from the south who had built up a strong state based in Napata, in the Sudan, at the foot of Gebel Barkal mountain. §REF§ (Leclant 1981, 285) J. Leclant. 1981. 'The Empire of Kush: Napata and Meroe', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa</i>, edited by G. Mokhtar, 278-97. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The first Kushite ruler of Egypt, Piye, was crowned in Napata; §REF§ (Török 1997, 154) László Török. 1997. <i>The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meriotic Civilization</i> Handbook of Oriental Studies, No. 31. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ this remained the capital of the Kushite Empire until c. 716 BCE, when the entire Nile Valley up to the delta was acquired under Shabaka, §REF§ (Leclant 1981, 280) J. Leclant. 1981. 'The Empire of Kush: Napata and Meroe', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa</i>, edited by G. Mokhtar, 278-97. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ who then moved the capital and royal residence from Napata to Memphis in order to emphasize the foreign dynasty's respect for traditional Egyptian customs. §REF§ (Török 1997, 167) László Török. 1997. <i>The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meriotic Civilization</i> Handbook of Oriental Studies, No. 31. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 349) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Kushite rule of Egypt (the Twenty-fifth Dynasty) occurred within an extremely complex political climate that has been the cause of much debate among historians. The Twenty-third Dynasty of the preceding Thebes-Libyan Period survived throughout this period, only to be toppled by the first ruler of the Saite Kingdom, Psamtek I (r. 664-610; Twenty-sixth Dynasty). The Egyptologist Jeremy Pope concludes that the 'Double Kingdom' (Kushite and Libyo-Egyptian) had some form of 'nominal unity' across a large territory. §REF§ (Pope 2014, 280) Jeremy Pope. 2014. <i>The Double Kingdom Under Taharqo</i>. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>Population and political organization<br>Scholars debate the extent to which there was a centralized bureaucracy in Egypt under Kushite rule. In Lower Nubia, the Kushite king may have exercised power through 'invisible elites' such as merchants, pastoralists, and local potentates - 'a striking contrast with the bureaucratic formalization of Upper Egypt'. §REF§ (Pope 2014, 191) Jeremy Pope. 2014. <i>The Double Kingdom Under Taharqo</i>. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Archaeologist Robert Morkot has argued that the Twenty-fifth Dynasty kept the Egyptian administrative system largely unchanged, making only relatively minor alterations such as appointing new individuals or families to official positions. §REF§ (Morkot 2013, 963) Robert G. Morkot. 2014. 'Thebes under the Kushites', in <i>Tombs of the South Asasif Necropolis: Thebes, Karakhamun (TT 223), and Karabasken (TT 391) in the Twenty-fifth Dynasty</i>, edited by Elena Pischikova, 5-22. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. §REF§ However, Jeremy Pope believes that we cannot use New Kingdom analogies to draw conclusions about Kushite governing principles, and that 'central authority and administration had disappeared' in this period. §REF§ (Pope 2014, 203) Jeremy Pope. 2014. <i>The Double Kingdom Under Taharqo</i>. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The Egyptian position of vizier probably continued but was 'deprived of effective power'. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 348) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>What is not in doubt is that the Kushite king was a powerful military ruler and, in the Libyan tradition, likely made marriage alliances with the elite throughout Egypt. §REF§ (Morkot 2013, 961) Robert G. Morkot. 2014. 'Thebes under the Kushites', in <i>Tombs of the South Asasif Necropolis: Thebes, Karakhamun (TT 223), and Karabasken (TT 391) in the Twenty-fifth Dynasty</i>, edited by Elena Pischikova, 5-22. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. §REF§ In general, Kushite rule drew its power from military capacity and the day-to-day workings of local government were left in the hands of the Egyptian dynasts. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 243) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Nubians and Egyptians also shared a common set of religious practices. King Piye, who successfully invaded Egypt, boasted of his divine legitimacy on a stele: 'Amon of Napata has made me sovereign over every people', §REF§ (Leclant 1981, 280) J. Leclant. 1981. 'The Empire of Kush: Napata and Meroe', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa</i>, edited by G. Mokhtar, 278-97. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ and established an official cult of Amun around 780-760 BCE; his sister became priestess. §REF§ (Török 1997, 144) László Török. 1997. <i>The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meriotic Civilization</i> Handbook of Oriental Studies, No. 31. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The existing powerful religious offices in Upper Egypt were also important for Kushite rule: the position of God's Wife (or Divine Adoratrice) at Thebes was maintained due to its political utility, and Kushite royals were installed as high priests. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 243) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In earlier times, the high priest at Thebes had exercised both civil and military authority, but the Kushites maintained their own Kushite military commanders, while civil authority was given initially to Kushite governors and later to 'Theban bureaucrats'. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 208) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The end of Kushite rule in Egypt and the beginning of the Saite Dynasty furnishes a rare example of a peaceful transition, involving the adoption of the Saite princess Nitocris by the last Kushite Divine Adoratrice of Amun, Amenirdis II, in 656 BC. §REF§ (Morkot 2013) Robert G. Morkot. 2014. 'Thebes under the Kushites', in <i>Tombs of the South Asasif Necropolis: Thebes, Karakhamun (TT 223), and Karabasken (TT 391) in the Twenty-fifth Dynasty</i>, edited by Elena Pischikova, 5-22. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. §REF§ <br>Kushite-period Memphis, where the chief royal residence was based, §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 349) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ is thought to have had a population of perhaps 65,000; the first capital, Napata, about 43,000. The Kushite Empire spanned roughly 600,000-700,000 square kilometres, but it is difficult to find reliable estimates for its population.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 94, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 66, "name": "GrCrGeo", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -710, "long_name": "Geometric Crete", "new_name": "gr_crete_geometric", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The eleventh century BCE marks the beginning of radical changes in southern Greece generally as well as Crete specifically, largely resulting from the invasion from the North of the Dorians §REF§ (Whitley 1998, 27-39) J. Whitley. 1998. 'From Minoans to Eterocretans: the Praisos region 1200-500 BC,' in <i>Post-Minoan Crete: Proceedings of the First Colloquium on Post-Minoan Crete held by the British School at Athens and the Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 10-11 November 1995</i>, edited by W.G. Cavanagh and M. Curtis, M. (eds), London: British School at Athens. §REF§ Overall, however, this period is relatively poorly understood, with no written sources and few archaeological finds. Most likely, Cretans mainly dedicated themselves to farming and pastoralism. Writing disappeared and artistic expression became more abstracted and geometrical. Things started to change in the eighth century, when trade routes were revitalized, and Cretans were able to capitalize on the island's premier location in the Eastern Mediterranean. And the trade in artefacts and products was accompanied by the exchange of new ideas and technologies. §REF§ Kostis Christakis, pers. comm., May 2016 §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Not much is known about either the island's population numbers at the time, or its political organization. In terms of population, very few settlements have been excavated, and none of these have yielded enough data for a credible estimate; in terms of political organization, it is likely that elite families were in charge but not much else could be said. §REF§ Kostis Christakis, pers. comm., May 2016 §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 270, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "PkIndGr", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10, "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "new_name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Indo-Greek 'kingdom' was created after the Greco-Bactrians invaded northern India from 180 BCE. It consisted of a number of dynastic polities that ruled from regional capitals and formed a single entity only to the extent their rulers were able to collaborate. More than 30 kings are known, who were often in conflict with each other. §REF§ (Bernard 2012, 42-52) Paul Bernard. 'Ai Khanum: A Greek Colony in Post-Alexandrian Central Asia, or How to Be Greek in an Oriental Milieu.' in Elisabetta Valtz Fino. Joan Aruz. ed. 2012. <i>Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations Along the Silk Road.</i> The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York. §REF§ <br>Bopearachchi suggests the period was founded by two kings, Demetrius I and Agathocles, who ruled around 185 BCE, but Jakobsson (2009) believes that a later king known as Menander was \"instrumental in the creation of the era.\" §REF§ (Jakobsson 2009) Jakobsson, Jens. Who Founded the Indo-Greek Era of 186/5 B.C.E.? Dec 2009. The Classical Quarterly. New Series. Vol. 59. No.2. pp. 505-510. §REF§ The lack of consistent or reliable sources from either Western or Chinese sources means that much of what we know is speculative and reliant on numismatic evidence. §REF§ (Guillaume 1986, 1-16) Olivier Guillaume. 1986. \"An Analysis of the Modes of Reconstruction of the Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek History.\" Studies in History 2, no. 1 §REF§ <br>It is likely the rulers, who simultaneously produced their own coinage, ruled different parts of the Indo-Greek polity and employed their own administrators. §REF§ (Jakobsson 2009. 505-510) Jens Jakobsson. Who Founded the Indo-Greek Era of 186/5 B.C.E.? Dec 2009. The Classical Quarterly. New Series. Vol. 59. No.2. §REF§ Governance of the Indo-Greek region was for the most part through personal kingship and organization extended only to the limits of a particular king's power. §REF§ (Jakobsson 2009, 505-510) Jens Jakobsson, Jens. Who Founded the Indo-Greek Era of 186/5 B.C.E.? Dec 2009. The Classical Quarterly. New Series. Vol. 59. No.2. §REF§ <br>After 145 BCE, Successive nomadic invasions by Scythians and other nomads isolated the Indo-Greeks from the wider Hellenic world. By the beginning of the first century CE, the Greco-Bactrian state was extinguished as an independent entity. §REF§ (Bernard 2012, 42-52) Paul Bernard. 'Ai Khanum: A Greek Colony in Post-Alexandrian Central Asia, or How to Be Greek in an Oriental Milieu.' in Elisabetta Valtz Fino. Joan Aruz. ed. 2012. <i>Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations Along the Silk Road.</i> The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York. §REF§ <br>Of the legacy of the civilization, the Greek alphabet survived until the Islamic conquest as the script of the Bactrian language, and the conversion of a Indo-Greek King to Buddhism became a part of the zeitgeist of the Indian collective historical memory. §REF§ (Bernard 2012, 42-52) Paul Bernard. 'Ai Khanum: A Greek Colony in Post-Alexandrian Central Asia, or How to Be Greek in an Oriental Milieu.' in Elisabetta Valtz Fino. Joan Aruz. ed. 2012. <i>Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations Along the Silk Road.</i> The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-11-20T10:59:20.104782Z", "home_nga": { "id": 13, "name": "Kachi Plain", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "67.628836000000", "latitude": "29.377664000000", "capital_city": "Mehrgarh", "nga_code": "PK", "fao_country": "Pakistan", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 38, "name": "Pakistan", "subregions_list": "Pakistan", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 285, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "SyCalUm", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750, "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "new_name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Umayyad Caliphate was formed in 661 CE by Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan following the assassination of Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. §REF§ (Madelung 1997, 108, 297) Wilferd Madelung. 1997. <i>The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It ended with the defeat of the Umayyads by the Abbasids in the Third Fitna (a series of Muslim civil wars) in 750 CE. §REF§ (Esposito, ed. 2003, 691) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Ummayad Caliphs, based in Damascus in Syria, ruled a large territory stretching from the Near East all the way through North Africa and into southern Spain.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The caliph was a tribal patriarch and head of the <i>ummah</i>, the entire Islamic community. The central government of the Umayyad Caliphate was almost non-existent at the start of the period but entered a more developed stage in the mid-8th century. One of the reasons for this lack of central administration was the exceptionally successful Arab-Muslim army combined with the existence of functioning bureaucracies in the former Sassanid and Byzantine domains, which were left largely intact. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 55) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Thus, under Muawiya - the first Ummayad Caliph - the ruler was 'surrounded by Arab chiefs' with no other central administration. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 80-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ At Damascus, an administrative system staffed by permanent officials §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 36-38) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ dates from the reigns of al-Malik (685-705 CE) and al-Walid (705-715 CE). §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 80-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The caliphs, from their residence in Damascus (661-744 CE) and then Harran (744-750 CE), employed a chamberlain to manage visitors and regulate daily affairs, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 80-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and maintained an office of the chancery §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 50-51) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ with officials called <i>diwans</i> to manage the collection of taxes and payment of salaries. §REF§ (Kennedy 2001, 88) Hugh N. Kennedy. 2001. <i>The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ In order to impose their authority over the provinces, which had a combined population of up to 33 million, §REF§ (Blankinship 1994, 37-38) Khalid Y. Blankinship. 1994. <i>The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd Al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads</i>. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. §REF§ the Umayyads typically sent civil and military governors (<i>amel</i> and <i>amir</i>). §REF§ (Lambton 2011) Ann K. S. Lambton. 2011. 'Cities iii: Administration and Social Organization', in <i>Encyclopedia Iranica</i> V/6, 607-23; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a> (accessed 2 April 2017). §REF§ In the regions they conquered, the Ummayads had no choice but to use the resident staff because institutions to train and educate bureaucrats had not yet developed in the Arab Muslim context. In Egypt, for the first century of Umayyad rule, 'all the provincial officials were Christians'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 17) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The Umayyad Caliphate was thus an exceptionally multicultural empire with a diverse governmental and cultural heritage.<br>This diversity was reflected in the number of languages spoken across the territory conquered by Muslims: from Basque in the far west to Berber and African Romance languages along the southern shores of the Mediterranean, and Aramaic, Turkic, Hebrew, Armenian and Kurdish in the east. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 126) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The use of Arabic as an administrative language began in Iraq in 697 CE, but spread outwards to Syria, Egypt and, by 700 CE, Khurasan in modern-day northeastern Iran. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 36-38) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In Egypt, the adoption of Arabic as the language of local government took over 100 years; initially, almost all papyruses were written in Greek. The first known bilingual Greek-Arabic document dates to 643 CE, and the last to 719. The earliest known Egyptian document written exclusively in Arabic is dated to 709 CE, and Greek was still being used up until 780 CE. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 23) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "JR: edited long name from Ummayad to Umayyad", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-03-27T09:30:27.298805Z", "home_nga": { "id": 8, "name": "Southern Mesopotamia", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "44.420000000000", "latitude": "32.470000000000", "capital_city": "Babylon (Hillah)", "nga_code": "IQ", "fao_country": "Iraq", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 61, "name": "Levant", "subregions_list": "Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 288, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 462, "name": "TjSaraz", "start_year": -3500, "end_year": -2000, "long_name": "Sarazm", "new_name": "tj_sarasm", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "This polity is named after an ancient settlement site at Sarazm, located in modern Tajikistan. The period runs from its initial settlement around 3500 BCE to the site's abandonment c. 2000 BCE. §REF§ (Anthony 2010, 420) Anthony, David W. 2010. The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MNNVQRA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MNNVQRA</a>. §REF§ This period at Sarazm represents the first urban phase in Sogdiana and has yielded evidence of ceramic production, agriculture, irrigation and metallurgy. §REF§ (de la Vaissière 2011) Vaissière, É. de la. 2011. “Sogdiana III: History and Archeology.” Encyclopædia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9AS4QQVB\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9AS4QQVB</a>. §REF§ Ceramic evidence, along with the presence of seashells, suggests that contacts were maintained with different areas of Central Asia. §REF§ (Masson 1992, 232) Masson, V. M. 1992. “The Bronze Age In Khorasan and Transoxania.” In History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume I: The Dawn of Civilizations: Earliest Times to 700 B.C., edited by A. H. Dani and V. M. Masson, 225-46. Paris: UNESCO. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JZ5DSUEB/q/masson\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JZ5DSUEB/q/masson</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Isakov 1994, 4-5) Isakov, A. 1994. “Sarazm: An Agricultural Center of Ancient Sogdiana.” Bulletin of the Asia Institute 8: 1-12. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NWVCFNW7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NWVCFNW7</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Due to the nature of the remaining evidence, the political organization of Sarazm is not known. While 100 hectares have been excavated at the site, the settlement area expanded and contracted throughout its existence, making a definite population estimate difficult for this period. §REF§ (de la Vaissière 2011) Vaissière, É. de la. 2011. “Sogdiana III: History and Archeology.” Encyclopædia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9AS4QQVB\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9AS4QQVB</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 23, "name": "Sogdiana", "subregion": "Turkestan", "longitude": "66.938170000000", "latitude": "39.631284000000", "capital_city": "Samarkand", "nga_code": "UZ", "fao_country": "Uzbekistan", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 13, "name": "Turkestan", "subregions_list": "Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 290, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " unknown", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "uncoded", "polity": { "id": 160, "name": "TrBrzER", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -2000, "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Bronze Age", "new_name": "tr_konya_eba", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Early Bronze Age period in Anatolia is complicated and complex topic. This period begins with controversy, because the transition from Late Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age is not clear. Some scholars argue that beginning of Early Bronze age should be dated to around 3000 BCE.<br><br/>This is clearly visible at the monumental graves, known as Royal Tombs at Alaca Höyük site. These tombs yielded over 700 items that we can grouped into 12 typological categories. A multiplicity of materials were used in those grave goods - from metals (copper, bronze, silver, gold, electrum, iron, lead, haematite), stones (carnelian, rock crystal, chalcedony, flint, lapis lazuli), frit, faience, pottery, to bone and textiles. The most spectacular findings were anthropomorphic figurines, which were made by the combination more than one metal in a single object. In these Royal Tombs we can find also remains of ceremonial funerary feasts. Some animals were slaughtered, the oxen being the most common.<br>Many sites of this period were well fortified. Proof of wooden palisades and stone walls was found in Karataş-Semayük, and just stone walls in for example Taurus and Demircihöyük. At Alişar Hüyük, complex fortifications were excavated - a well constructed stronghold wall, and 10 meters of fortification on the terrace. One of these walls was set behind the other, and onto it rectangular-shaped bastions were constructed. A lot of handheld weapons were also found in Central Anatolia Plateau, for example: swords, daggers, pikes, halberds, spears, battle axes and warclubs. At the Demircihöyük and Karataş-Semayük sites, there were extramural Early Bronze Age cemeteries - altogether there were about 900 pithoi burials, and the majority of bodies was facing Southeast.<br>The pottery of Anatolian Early Bronze Age was distinctive by red monochrome wares. In terms of animal remains, it can be concluded that Sheep and goats were most dominant (at Acemhöyük), representing 63-68 percent of the faunal remains, followed by cattle and pigs.<br><br/><br>Wood or rather wooden planks were used in Royal Tombs at Alaca Höyük. \"The burials consisted of a rectangular pit roofed with wooden planks.\" §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimanksy, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, p. 214. §REF§ <br>Flint/Obsidian present §REF§ Knitter D. \"Concepts of Centrality and Models of Exchange in Prehistoric Western Anatolia\" In: \"Landscape Archaeology. Proceedings of the International Conference Held in Berlin, 6th - 8th June 2012\", p. 363. §REF§ §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimanksy, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, p. 214. §REF§ <br>Building stone present Building stone was used e.g. in Royal Tombs at Alaca Höyük. \"The lower parts of these shafts consisted of rectangular stone-lined pits in wchich a single person was normally buried\" §REF§ Düring B. S., \"The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies.\", Cambridge 2011, p. 291. §REF§ \"The most numerous examples of the megaron plan are found in the Early Bronze Age village at Karataş (Troy I-II period), where stone foundations of over thirty such structures have been uncovered in recent excavations.\" §REF§ Warner J., \"The Megaron and Apsidal House in Early Bronze Age Western Anatolia: New Evidence from Karataş\", In: \"American Journal of Archaeology\", Vol. 83, No. 2 (Apr., 1979), p. 138. §REF§ <br>Copper present E.g. grave goods §REF§ Düring B. S., \"The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies.\", Cambridge 2011, p. 291. §REF§ <br>Tin/Arsenic present Kestel §REF§ Yener K. A., \"An Early Bronze Age Tin Production Site at Göltepe, Turkey.\", In: \"The Oriental Institute News and Notes\", Vol. 140 (1994) §REF§ \"The Kestel-Göltepe complex is vast. The mine itself comprises a network of eight galleries, extending in various directions. Some 4500 cubic meters of ore were extracted, often through precariously narrow tunnels, using fire and large ground stone hammers to shatter the ore. Even if the ore mined in antiquity were low grade, containing only 1 % of tin like some the nodules found in the excavations, the size of the galleries point to the produciotn of some 115 tons of tin.\" §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, pp. 200-2001. §REF§ <br>Iron present E.g. grave goods §REF§ Düring B. S., \"The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies.\", Cambridge 2011, p. 291. §REF§ . Iron Dagger §REF§ Düring B. S., \"The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies.\", Cambridge 2011, p. 292. §REF§ <br>Material to make ornaments gold, silver, carnelian, jade, rock crystal \"In terms of jewellery, we should note the ability of the craftsmen to combine gold and silver with precious stones (carnelian, jade, and rock crystal), a technique especially favored for pins, and at the same time the conspicious absence of filigree and granulation.\" §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, pp. 208-209. §REF§ <br>Lead present Most of all as grave goods §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, pp. 214-217 §REF§ <br>Agropastoral with pastoral dominating Sheep and goats were the dominant component of the animal economy at Acemhöyük III and II, representing 63-68 percent of the faunal remains, followed by cattle and pigs. This is similar to the situation observed at contemporary sites on the central plateau including Kaman Kalehhöyük, Küultepe, and Çadır Höyük. §REF§ Arbuckle B., \"Pastoralism, Provisioning, and Power at Bronze Age Acemhöyük, Turkey\", In: \"American Anthropologist\", Vol. 114 (2012), Issue 3, p. 466. §REF§ <br>Iron present Pieces of iron object found in Tomb L in Alacahöyük §REF§ Yalçin Ü. and H. G., \"Reassessing Antropomorphic Metal Figurines of Alacahöyük, Anatolia\", In: \"Near Eastern Archeology\" Vol. 76:1 (2013), p. 41. §REF§ .<br>Metals present §REF§ Efe T., \"The Theories of the 'Great Caravan Route' between Cilicia and Troy: The Early Bronze Age III Period in Inland Western Anatolia\" In: \"Anatolian Studies\", Vol. 57, Transanatolia: Bridging the Gap between East and West inthe Archaeology of Ancient Anatolia (2007), p. 49 §REF§ <br>Raw materials present Melian Obsidian in Beycesultan §REF§ Knitter D. \"Concepts of Centrality and Models of Exchange in Prehistoric Western Anatolia\" In: \"Landscape Archaeology. Proceedings of the International Conference Held in Berlin, 6th - 8th June 2012\", p. 363. §REF§ <br>Pottery present Trojan <i>depas</i> vessel, two-handled tankards, wheelmade plain plates and bowls §REF§ Ancient Anatolia, 10,000-323 B.C.E, S.R. Steadman, G.McMahon, Oxford University Press, 2011. Chapter 10 §REF§ <br>Coppersmith present §REF§ Yakar T., \"Regional and Local Schools of Metalwork in Early Bronze Age Anatolia: Part I\", In: \"Anatolian Studies\", Vol. 34 (1984), p. 75. §REF§ <br>Pottery present §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, p. 197. §REF§ <br>Butcher present §REF§ Arbuckle B., \"Pastoralism, Provisioning, and Power at Bronze Age Acemhöyük, Turkey\", In: \"American Anthropologist\", Vol. 114 (2012), Issue 3, p. 468. §REF§ <br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }