Polity Suprapolity Relations List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Suprapolity Relations.
GET /api/general/polity-suprapolities/?ordering=id&page=3
{ "count": 393, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/general/polity-suprapolities/?ordering=id&page=4", "previous": "https://seshatdata.com/api/general/polity-suprapolities/?ordering=id&page=2", "results": [ { "id": 21, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 425, "name": "CnNSong", "start_year": 960, "end_year": 1127, "long_name": "Northern Song", "new_name": "cn_northern_song_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Northern Song (or Sung) Dynasty was a period of great economic advancement, population growth, urbanization, and political change in China. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 136) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Eleventh-century China under the Song has been called the 'most advanced place in the world' at that time. §REF§ (Weatherhead East Asian Institute 2008) Weatherhead East Asian Institute. 2008. 'China in 1000 AD: The Most Advanced Society in the World'. Asian Topics on Asia for Educators: The Song Dynasty in China (960-1279). Columbia University. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/</a>. Accessed 15 March 2017. §REF§ The Northern Song government ruled from its capital in Kaifeng, while the Southern Song were based in Hangzhou.<br>The century between the fall of the Tang dynasty and beginning of the Song dynasty was characterized by the rise of powerful warlords in the south and political turmoil in the north. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 136) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The first Song emperor, Emperor Taizu, reunified the Yangtze River Valley and South China. §REF§ (Meyer 1994, 217) Milton W. Meyer. 1994. <i>China: A Concise History</i>. Lanham, MD: Littlefield Adams. §REF§ The territory held by the Song was smaller than that held by previous powerful dynasties, and much of North China was still dominated by outside rule. §REF§ (Meyer 1994, 217) Milton W. Meyer. 1994. <i>China: A Concise History</i>. Lanham, MD: Littlefield Adams. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Song government was marked by the increasing importance of the civil service examination and the rise of Confucianism. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 136) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The prominence of the civil service examination led to the emergence of a central government governed by scholar-officials rather than by aristocrats, as was traditionally the case. The government was headed by a powerful emperor and featured a large central bureaucracy. §REF§ (Hartman 2015, 20, 88) Charles Hartman. 2015. 'Sung government and politics', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Five Dynasties and Sung China, 960-1279 AD, Part 2</i>, edited by J. W. Chaffee and D. Twitchett, 21-138. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Song period saw rapid commercial and industrial expansion. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 144) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Agriculture, paper-making, printing, and iron-working flourished, §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 141-42) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Weatherhead East Asian Institute 2008) Weatherhead East Asian Institute. 2008. 'China in 1000 AD: The Most Advanced Society in the World'. Asian Topics on Asia for Educators: The Song Dynasty in China (960-1279). Columbia University. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/</a>. Accessed 15 March 2017. §REF§ and paper money was first produced in China under the Song. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 142) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Foreign trade increased as the state expanded its trading networks. §REF§ (Weatherhead East Asian Institute 2008) Weatherhead East Asian Institute. 2008. 'China in 1000 AD: The Most Advanced Society in the World'. Asian Topics on Asia for Educators: The Song Dynasty in China (960-1279). Columbia University. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/</a>. Accessed 15 March 2017. §REF§ <br>Although it is clear that the Song Dynasty was a period of massive population growth and urbanization, §REF§ (Weatherhead East Asian Institute 2008) Weatherhead East Asian Institute. 2008. 'China in 1000 AD: The Most Advanced Society in the World'. Asian Topics on Asia for Educators: The Song Dynasty in China (960-1279). Columbia University. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/</a>. Accessed 15 March 2017. §REF§ there is some disagreement about exact population numbers. Some scholars agree that the population had reached around 100 million by 1000 CE, §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 141) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Mote 2003, 164) Frederick W. Mote. 2003. <i>Imperial China: 900-1800</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ while others believe it was closer to 60 million. §REF§ (Hartman 2015, 29) Charles Hartman. 2015. 'Sung government and politics', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Five Dynasties and Sung China, 960-1279 AD, Part 2</i>, edited by J. W. Chaffee and D. Twitchett, 21-138. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-04T15:57:28.881607Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 22, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "434 CE marriage alliance with Rouran. §REF§(Xiong 2009, xcix)§REF§<br>Erzhu clan allied with government to suppress 526-527 CE rebellions. Previously part of the Xiongnu tribal confederacy. They were living under \"their own tribal organization\" a pastoral lifestyle. Early 6th century estimated at 8,000 families. Possessed cattle, sheep, camels and horses, \"counted by the valley\" due to the vastness of their stocks. §REF§(Graff 2002, 100-101)§REF§<br>Alliance between Tuoba of Wei and Murong of Yan ended 391 CE. §REF§(Graff 2002, 70)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "CnNWei*", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534, "long_name": "Northern Wei", "new_name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Northern Wei dynasty (Tuoba or Bei Wei) unified northern China during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ Before unification under the Northern Wei, the northern region was ruled by the Sixteen Barbarian States that had risen up when the Western Jin fled to the south. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ The Northern Wei conquered Northern Yan and Northern Liang to unify the north. §REF§ (Xiong 2009, 384) Xiong, V C. 2009. Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Scarecrow Press, Inc., Plymouth. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong</a>. §REF§ During Northern Wei rule, Tuoba continued to expand its territory. By 439 CE the dynasty controlled Henan, Hebei, and parts of Shaanxi, Manchuria, Gansu, and Sichuan. §REF§ “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a> §REF§ At its peak the territory of the Northern Wei expanded from the Tarim Basin to the Yellow Sea, and from the northern steppe to edge of territory of the Southern dynasties. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ In 500 CE, the Northern Wei territory encompassed 1.7 million square kilometers. §REF§ (Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet) §REF§ <br>The rulers of the Northern Wei belonged to the Tuoba tribe of the Xianbei northern steppe federation. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ The Tuoba language was close to Turkish, and the non-Han Chinese rulers were first seen as foreign invaders. §REF§ “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a> §REF§ In the late 400s the Tuoba Sinicized their customs, language, and government, and moved their capital to Luoyang. §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a> §REF§ Buddhism was upheld as a state religion for most of the Northern Wei. The Buddhist caves of Yungang and Longmen were constructed during the period. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ In the early 500s, Luoyang had over one thousand monasteries and number of mansions and large palaces. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 91) Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8</a> §REF§ <br>The fall of the Northern Wei was due to a civil war caused by rebellions in garrisons in the northern frontier §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a> §REF§ The rival army factions spilt the dynasty into Eastern and Western Wei in 535 CE. §REF§ (Xiong 2009, 384) Xiong, V C. 2009. Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Scarecrow Press, Inc., Plymouth. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In the Northern Dynasties, nobles and landowners often had vesting holdings with dependent servants and slaves who did not pay taxes. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ The Northern Wei government attempted to break up these large holdings to reduce the power of provincial nobles. The government deported over 400,000 dependent peasants to unused land near the first capital of Pingcheng. §REF§ “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a> §REF§ The Northern Wei also instituted an equal-fields system in which the state owned all land and individuals were given certain allotments for life. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 91) Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8</a> §REF§ <br>In the late 400s, the Northern Wei moved the capital to Luoyang and began to create a more Chinese-style state. §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a> §REF§ The Tuoba relied on Chinese civil servants to assist with governance. §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a> §REF§ <br>The population of the Northern Wei dynasty was 32 million in 500 CE. §REF§ (Graff 2002, 127)Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA</a> §REF§ The second Wei capital of Luoyang had a population of 600,000 at its peak. §REF§ (Graff 2002, 98)Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-04T15:48:35.302300Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 23, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet were under the Qing dynasty domination. Qing also had tributary states including Nepal, Burma, Siam, Laos, Tonking, and Korea.<br>Supra-cultural relations", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "CnQingE", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796, "long_name": "Early Qing", "new_name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Qing Dynasty (or Empire of the Great Qing, Great Qing, Manchu Dynasty, Manchus, Jin, Jurchens, Ch'ing Dynasty) was China's last imperial dynasty. The founders of the Qing were descendants of Jurchen Jin rulers. The dynasty was founded by Nurhaci and then led by his son Huang Taiji, but did not become an imperial Chinese dynasty until after Huang Taiji's death. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ In 1644 CE, Qing forces captured the Ming capital at Beijing from rebels and held a funeral for the last Ming emperor to symbolize Qing inheritance of the Mandate of Heaven. §REF§ (San 2014, 338) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ <br>The Qing faced conflict with rebels and loyalist Ming forces for the next two decades. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ Ming generals who surrendered were given power over large territories in southern China in exchange for loyalty to the Qing. In 1673 CE, leaders from three major southern feudatories led by Wu Sangui rebelled against Emperor Kangxi when he tried to reduce their power. §REF§ (San 2014, 385) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ The Revolt of the Three Feudatories, as this episode is known, lasted eight years.<br>We divide the Qing Dynasty into two, an Early period (1644-1796 CE) and a Late period (1796-1912 CE). The division is marked by a period of internal turmoil as well as foreign incursions into its territory and economic sphere. In the Early Qing period, China had been prosperous under Kangxi and Qing rule, but by the time of the Opium Wars in the Late Qing, Western technology and industry had surpassed that of China. §REF§ (Mao 2005, 8) Haijin Mao. 2005. <i>The Qing Empire and the Opium War: The Collapse of the Heavenly Dynasty</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 gave rise to the Republic of China.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Qing ruled over an expansive empire, and its bureaucracy was more efficient than that of previous periods. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 1) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Qing rulers adopted the Chinese bureaucratic system first used in the Han and Tang Dynasties. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Dynasty Government, Administration and Law'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-admin.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ Before conquering the Ming, the Qing managed its population through a system of hereditary military organizations called the Eight Banners. §REF§ (Elliot 2011, 39) Mark C. Elliot. 2001. <i>The Manchu Way</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. §REF§ These became part of the administrative structure of the Qing Dynasty and were only open to those of Manchu descent. §REF§ (Elliot 2011, 39) Mark C. Elliot. 2001. <i>The Manchu Way</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. §REF§ In the later Qing period, however, the Eight Banners lost some of their political functions and served to enhance the prestige of the top Qing nobility. §REF§ (Elliot 2011, 40) Mark C. Elliot. 2001. <i>The Manchu Way</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. §REF§ <br>The central government was headed by the emperor and included a 'Grand Council', created by the Yongzheng emperor and expanded by the Qianlong emperor. §REF§ (Lorge 2005, 173) Peter Lorge. 2005. <i>War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900-1795</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ The Grand Council ruled over the central ministries and provided a way for the emperor to circumvent the official bureaucracy for many decisions. §REF§ (Lorge 2005, 173) Peter Lorge. 2005. <i>War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900-1795</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br>The Qing provincial government consisted of governors who controlled a hierarchical system of officials, prefects, county chiefs, country magistrates, and clerks. §REF§ (Zhang 2011, 63) Wei-Bin Zhang. 2011. <i>The Rise and Fall of China's Last Dynasty: The Deepening of the Chinese Servility</i>. Hauppage, NY: Nova Science Publishers. §REF§ In the early Qing years, provinces were ruled by high ranking officials who were typically of Manchu descent. §REF§ (Hsu 2006, 415) Cho-yun Hsu. 2006. <i>China: A New Cultural History</i>. New York: Columbia University Press. §REF§ <br>The territory of the Qing empire was more than double that of the Ming. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 1) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Tibetans, Uighurs, Muslims, a number of Mongol groups, Burmese, Thais, and indigenous Taiwanese were incorporated into the Chinese empire. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 1) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>Three Qing emperors - Kangxi (1662-1722 CE), Yongzheng (1723-1735 CE), and Qianlong (1736-1795 CE) - are historically known as great rulers. During their reigns, China was extremely prosperous. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ Qianlong is famous for leading ten military expeditions, including campaigns in Taiwan, Burma, Vietnam and Nepal. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>Based on Chinese census and registration counts, the population of China in 1749 CE was about 177.5 million. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 4) Judith Banister. 1987. <i>China's Changing Population</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§ The following century was one of extremely rapid population growth, and by 1851 the population had reached 431.9 million people. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 3-4) Judith Banister. 1987. <i>China's Changing Population</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§ Historian James Z. Gao writes that the area within the Qing court's 'sphere of influence' at its peak was 13.1 million square kilometres'. §REF§ (Gao 2009, xxxvi) James Z. Gao. 2009. <i>Historical Dictionary of Modern China (1800-1949)</i>. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§ <br>While the Qing period is not well known for poetry, painting and porcelain as previous periods are, print journalism, theatre and novels flourished under the Qing emperors. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 2) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-17T15:40:34.789180Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 24, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Supra-cultural relations", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "CnQingL", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912, "long_name": "Late Qing", "new_name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Qing Dynasty (or Empire of the Great Qing, Great Qing, Manchu Dynasty, Manchus, Jin, Jurchens, Ch'ing Dynasty) was China's last imperial dynasty. The founders of the Qing were descendants of Jurchen Jin rulers. The dynasty was founded by Nurhaci and then led by his son Huang Taiji, but did not become an imperial Chinese dynasty until after Huang Taiji's death. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ In 1644 CE, Qing forces captured the Ming capital at Beijing from rebels and held a funeral for the last Ming emperor to symbolize Qing inheritance of the Mandate of Heaven. §REF§ (San 2014, 338) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ <br>The Qing faced conflict with rebels and loyalist Ming forces for the next two decades. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ Ming generals who surrendered were given power over large territories in southern China in exchange for loyalty to the Qing. In 1673 CE, leaders from three major southern feudatories led by Wu Sangui rebelled against Emperor Kangxi when he tried to reduce their power. §REF§ (San 2014, 385) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ The Revolt of the Three Feudatories, as this episode is known, lasted eight years.<br>We divide the Qing Dynasty into two, an Early period (1644-1796 CE) and a Late period (1796-1912 CE). The division is marked by a period of internal turmoil as well as foreign incursions into its territory and economic sphere. In the Early Qing period, China had been prosperous under Kangxi and Qing rule, but by the time of the Opium Wars in the Late Qing, Western technology and industry had surpassed that of China. §REF§ (Mao 2005, 8) Haijin Mao. 2005. <i>The Qing Empire and the Opium War: The Collapse of the Heavenly Dynasty</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 gave rise to the Republic of China.<br>From 1850 to 1864 CE, China was racked by the fourteen-year Taiping Rebellion. The rebellion directly caused 30 million deaths and destroyed many regions in the middle and lower Yangtze. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 198) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ In 1853, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace established a capital in Nanjing, but the rebellion was defeated by armies led by local governors in 1864. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ A number of serious uprisings followed the Taiping Rebellion, including the Nian Rebellion (1853-1868 CE). §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>At the same time, the Qing emperors were facing economic problems due to the actions of foreign powers. In the 1830s, British merchants began illegally importing opium to China, where high demand for the drug led to a large trade imbalance. China's economy was drained of silver §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 157) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ and the value of copper coins depreciated. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The First Opium War broke out in 1839 CE when a Chinese commissioner attempted to block opium trade in Guangzhou harbour. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The Second Opium War of 1858 CE was a series of military actions by the British and French against the Qing. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The resulting treaties allowed foreign powers to establish concessions in China, abolished taxes for French and British merchants, and forced the Qing to pay large amounts of silver in damages. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The 19th century saw increasingly frequent intrusions by foreign powers. Foreign merchants exploited their tax-free status, to the detriment of local Chinese producers. China was forced to cede much of its territory in Vietnam, Burma and elsewhere. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ By the end of the 19th century, a range of foreign powers including Great Britain, Japan, Germany, and France claimed colonial territories in China. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ A peasant uprising known as the Boxer Rebellion targeted foreigners in 1900 CE.<br>In 1860, the Qing rulers were exiled outside the Great Wall when foreign invaders burned down the Summer Palace. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 201) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The court was restored by the regent Empress Dowager Cixi and Prince Gong in what is known as the Tongzhi restoration. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 201) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ However, the dynasty was finally overthrown in the Revolution of 1911 and the Republic of China was founded.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Late Qing maintained a traditional imperial-style Chinese government headed by an emperor and central bureaucracy. Provincial government consisted of governors who controlled a hierarchical system of officials, prefects, county chiefs, county magistrates, and clerks. §REF§ (Zhang 2011, 63) Wei-Bin Zhang. 2011. <i>The Rise and Fall of China's Last Dynasty: The Deepening of the Chinese Servility</i>. Hauppage, NY: Nova Science Publishers. §REF§ The Qing were deeply opposed to modernization: the scholars Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao had to flee after attempting to reform government practices in 1898 CE. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ Rebellions in the 19th century led to the rise of local governors and military commanders, who acted as warlords to control their local regions. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The period between the mid-18th and mid-19th centuries was one of extremely rapid population growth in Late Qing China, and by 1851 the population had reached 431.9 million people. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 3-4) Judith Banister. 1987. <i>China's Changing Population</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§ However, a number of censuses after that date could not be completed due to the rebellions.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-17T15:41:02.301719Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 25, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " §REF§(Chang 1980)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "vassalage", "polity": { "id": 243, "name": "CnShang", "start_year": -1250, "end_year": -1045, "long_name": "Late Shang", "new_name": "cn_late_shang_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Late Shang Dynasty (1250-1045 BCE) was an extension of the Erligang culture based in Yinxu, near modern Anyang. The Late Shang were the last 12 kings of the dynasty, beginning with Pan Geng. Unlike in Erligang settlements, pottery, oracle bones and other artefacts showing a fully formed writing system have been found at Late Shang sites. This system included 'pictograms, ideograms, and phonograms'. §REF§ (San 2014, 19) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ The oldest written records uncovered from Shang contexts date back to 1200 BCE. §REF§ (San 2014, 19) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ <br>The civilization at Yinxu is considered to represent the golden age of the Shang Dynasty §REF§ (San 2014, 17) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ and 11 major royal tombs have been uncovered there by archaeologists. §REF§ (San 2014, 17) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ Pottery and bronze and jade work flourished in the Late Shang period. §REF§ (San 2014, 20) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ The Late Shang also had a developed calendar system with 30 days in a month and 12 months (360 days) in a year. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica 2017) “Shang Dynasty.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shang-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shang-dynasty</a> Accessed May 29, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8GNFD4WH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8GNFD4WH</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Late Shang were based on the North China Plain. The dynasty's territory stretched north to modern Shandong, south to Hebei, and west to Henan. §REF§ (San 2014, 16) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ The Shang government was a feudal system in which the king and a class of military nobility ruled over the masses, who were mainly farmers. §REF§ (San 2014, 16, 21) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ Shang kings also served as high priests. §REF§ (San 2014, 16) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>) §REF§ The Late Shang were in constant conflict with surrounding settlements and with civilizations from the steppe. §REF§ (San 2014, 21) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ <br>The population of the Late Shang Dynasty was around 5 million in 1045 BCE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 170-72) McEvedy, Colin, and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6U4QZXCG/q/atlas%20of%20world%20population\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6U4QZXCG/q/atlas%20of%20world%20population</a>. §REF§ The population of the Yinxu settlement in Anyang is unknown.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-04T15:29:41.622565Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 26, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 260, "name": "CnSui**", "start_year": 581, "end_year": 618, "long_name": "Sui Dynasty", "new_name": "cn_sui_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "China was reunified after the Northern and Southern dynasties period by the short-lived Sui dynasty (581-618 CE). The first Sui emperor Yang Jian dethroned the Northern Zhou emperor and conquered the southern Chen dynasty.§REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Sui Dynasty (581-618). Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html</a> Accessed June 15, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9</a> §REF§ The Sui were able to unify China but did not create a stable, lasting imperial house.§REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Sui Dynasty (581-618). Chinaknowledge.de.<a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html</a> Accessed June 15, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9</a> §REF§ The second Sui emperor Yangdi is villainized for his extravagant spending and endless military campaigns. Yangdi undertook massive infrastructure projects including the fortification of the Great Wall, and the construction of a third capital at Jiangdu, and the Grand Canal. He also conducted many military campaigns including multiple attempts to conquer the Korean Peninsula. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Sui Dynasty (581-618). Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html</a> Accessed June 15, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9</a> §REF§ His overuse of conscripted corvee labor coupled with natural disasters led to famine, and the dynasty was overthrown by massive peasant rebellions and revolts by nobles after only 37 years of rule.§REF§ (Editorial Committee of Chinese Civilization 2007, 62) Editorial Committee of Chinese Civilization (eds.) 2007. China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization. Hong Kong: City University of Hong Kong Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V6V8BAE4\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V6V8BAE4</a> §REF§ Sui construction of infrastructure and government reforms paved the way for the lasting rule of the Tang.§REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Sui Dynasty (581-618). Chinaknowledge.de.<a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html</a> Accessed June 15, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9</a> §REF§<br>The Sui territory encompassed 3 million square kilometers in 581.§REF§ (Chase-Dunn spreadsheet) §REF§ The 2,500 km (5,000 li) Grand Canal supplied the Sui capitals of Luoyang, Chang’an and Jiangdu with grain from the lower Yangtze area, running from the eastern capital of Luoyang to present-day Beijing and Hangzhou.§REF§ (Editorial Committee of Chinese Civilization 2007, 62) Editorial Committee of Chinese Civilization (eds.) 2007. China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization. Hong Kong: City University of Hong Kong Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V6V8BAE4\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V6V8BAE4</a> §REF§ The Sui sphere of influence reached Chinese Turkestan, Champa, and Formosa.§REF§ (Tuan 2008, 94) Tuan, Yi-Fu. 2008. A Historical Geography of China. London: Aldine Transactions. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GTTWMMF5\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GTTWMMF5</a> §REF§<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Sui’s administrative reforms abolished all fiefdoms and set up a prefecture system. The examination and military system were reformed. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Sui Dynasty (581-618). Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html</a> Accessed June 15, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9</a> §REF§ Yang Jian reestablished Han Confucian government rituals, and reformed Chinas’ penal code and administrative laws.§REF§ “Sui dynasty.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sui-dynasty\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sui-dynasty</a> Accessed June 16, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RPPSPKUR\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RPPSPKUR</a> §REF§<br>The Sui population was recorded as 46 million in a 609 CE census. However, some modern scholars believe that this number is too low.§REF§ (Tuan 2008, 94) Tuan, Yi-Fu. 2008. A Historical Geography of China. London: Aldine Transactions. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GTTWMMF5\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GTTWMMF5</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-04T15:56:44.774181Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 27, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "CnTangE", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763, "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "new_name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Tang Dynasty is widely considered a cultural and political high point of imperial China. The dynasty was founded by Li Yuan, the Duke of Tang, when the threat of insurrection forced the previous Sui dynasty court to flee from Luoyang, the capital, to Yangzhou. Li Yuan marched to Luoyang and seized the abandoned capital in 618 CE. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 1) Charles Benn. 2002. <i>China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ He became the first emperor of the Tang dynasty (r. 618-626 CE) and is posthumously known as Gaozu. Under the Early Tang Dynasty, the capital was moved from Chang'an to Luoyang. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 37) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. <i>China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ We divide the Dynasty into an Early period (618-763 CE) and Late period (763-907 CE), separated by the decline in imperial authority and instability of experienced by the Tang in the 750s, culminating in the An Lushan rebellion to close out the Early period (755‒763 CE).<br>Under Early Tang leadership, China's territory expanded considerably. Conquered territories included large areas of Central Asia and northern Korea (Koguryō). §REF§ (Benn 2002, 2) Charles Benn. 2002. <i>China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ In later years, however, China pursued a defensive, non-expansionist policy towards groups on the steppe and frontier. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 8) Charles Benn. 2002. <i>China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>The dynasty, also known as the Tang (T'ang) Empire or Li Dynasty, is famous for its poetry, literature, increased trade and general cosmopolitanism. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 1) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. <i>China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ In 660 CE, Empress Wu became the first woman to rule China, first governing as a regent to her young son and later ruling as empress dowager and regent until her death in 705 CE. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 4-7) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. <i>China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Emperor Xuanzong's 44-year reign (712‒756 CE) ushered in a cultural and economic golden age, which declined as he aged and ended in rebellion and an overthrow of the dynasty. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 8-10) Charles Benn. 2002. <i>China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Emperor Gaozu worked to restore control of the imperial government that had been established by the Sui Dynasty, and founded frontier garrisons controlled directly by the capital. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 3) Charles Benn. 2002. <i>China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Tang instituted the much discussed 'equal fields' system, in which land owned by the state was parcelled out in equal allotments to citizens in return for taxation. The Tang also minted many new coins in an attempt to stabilize the economy. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 3) Charles Benn. 2002. <i>China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>The Early Tang imperial government was characterized by an emperor who theoretically had absolute power, but was often in practice overruled by ministers or regents. §REF§ (Rodzinski 1979, 118) Witold Rodzinski. 1979. <i>A History of China, Volume 1</i>. Oxford: Pergamon Press. §REF§ The central government was headed by three chief ministers who ran the Imperial Chancellery, Imperial Secretariat, and the Department for State Affairs. §REF§ (Rodzinski 1979, 118) Witold Rodzinski. 1979. <i>A History of China, Volume 1</i>. Oxford: Pergamon Press. §REF§ The government also included a large central and state bureaucracy, marked by the expanding use of merit examinations. §REF§ (Roberts 1996, 94) J. A. G. Roberts. 1996. <i>A History of China, Volume 1: Prehistory to c. 1800</i>. Phoenix Mill: Alan Sutton Publishing. §REF§ <br>The population of the Early Tang Dynasty is estimated at 37 million in 700 CE and increased to almost 53 million by 754 CE. §REF§ (Rodzinski 1979, 129) Witold Rodzinski. 1979. <i>A History of China, Volume 1</i>. Oxford: Pergamon Press. §REF§ In the 8th century, there were an estimated 1 million people living in Chang'an. §REF§ (Roberts 1996, 106) J. A. G. Roberts. 1996. <i>A History of China, Volume 1: Prehistory to c. 1800</i>. Phoenix Mill: Alan Sutton Publishing. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "JR: This was previously named \"Early Tang\". However, Ruth Mostern noted that our use of \"Early Tang\" for 617-763 CE and \"Later Tang\" for 763-907 was confusing because \"Later Tang\" is used by historians to refer to a short-lived regime 923-37.", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-04-15T14:36:42.507728Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 15, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 28, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "CnTangL", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907, "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "new_name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Tang Dynasty is widely considered a cultural and political high point of imperial China. The dynasty was founded by Li Yuan, the Duke of Tang, when the threat of insurrection forced the previous Sui dynasty court to flee from Luoyang, the capital, to Yangzhou. Li Yuan marched to Luoyang and seized the abandoned capital in 618 CE. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 1) Charles Benn. 2002. <i>China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ He became the first emperor of the Tang dynasty (r. 618-626 CE) and is posthumously known as Gaozu. Under the Early Tang Dynasty, the capital was moved from Chang'an to Luoyang. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 37) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. <i>China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ We divide the Dynasty into an Early period (618-763 CE) and Late period (763-907 CE), separated by the decline in imperial authority and instability of experienced by the Tang in the 750s, culminating in the An Lushan rebellion to close out the Early period (755‒763 CE).<br>The Tang Dynasty continued to rule China after the defeat of the An Lushan rebellion (755‒763 CE). §REF§ (Perkins 1999, 11) Dorothy Perkins. 1999. <i>Encyclopedia of China</i>. New York: Routledge. §REF§ However, the government never fully recovered from its impact. §REF§ (Perkins 1999, 11) Dorothy Perkins. 1999. <i>Encyclopedia of China</i>. New York: Routledge. §REF§ Tang border defences were devastated, leading to attacks from outsiders and pirates. The Tang government maintained an often-uneasy alliance with the Uighurs against the Tibetans. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 12) Charles Benn. 2002. <i>Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty</i>. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. §REF§ In 790, Tibetan forces occupied Chinese land in eastern Turkestan and ended Chinese rule in the region for almost a thousand years. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 64) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. <i>China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Benn 2002, 11) Charles Benn. 2002. <i>Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty</i>. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. §REF§ <br>Late Tang China was marked by conflict, with the occasional brief period of peace. Emperor Xianzong's campaigns against rebel governors in the early 9th century restored almost all of China back to direct rule under the Tang government. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 64) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. <i>China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Xianzong was successful in restoring stability to the Tang Empire and his death was followed by 40 years of peace. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 16) Charles Benn. 2002. <i>Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty</i>. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. §REF§ Later, Emperor Wuzong persecuted Buddhists and adherents of other non-indigenous religions. His movement reached its height in 845 CE and most monasteries were destroyed, but his successors reversed his anti-Buddhist policies. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 16-17) Charles Benn. 2002. <i>Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty</i>. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. §REF§ <br>The dynasty fell in 881 CE after a series of internal rebellions, leading to about a century characterized by the rise of powerful warlords in the south and political turmoil in the north §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 136) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ before another period of Chinese efflorescence under the Northern Song Dynasty. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 18) Charles Benn. 2002. <i>Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty</i>. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Late Tang Dynasty was marked by tensions between the central government and military garrisons. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 60) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. <i>China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ In 763 CE, two-thirds of the provincial governors were military commanders. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 12) Charles Benn. 2002. <i>Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty</i>. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. §REF§ Tang emperors attempted to weaken the central bureaucracy by having military governors pay direct tribute instead of taxes. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 63) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. <i>China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The Tang government implemented the two-tax system in 780 CE, which replaced the 'equal land' distribution system of the Early Tang. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 65) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. <i>China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ This system of taxation represented an attempt to weaken military garrison governments and to divert taxation income to the central government. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 65) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. <i>China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>The Late Tang central government was marked by the rise of eunuchs. Eunuchs did not hold powerful positions in the Early Tang government, but in the later period the Department of the Inner Palace, staffed by eunuchs, became a powerful governmental authority ‒ more powerful than the emperor's chief ministers. §REF§ (Dalby 1979, 571-72) Michael T. Dalby. 1979. 'Court Politics in Late T'ang Times', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589-906 AD, Part One</i>, edited by D. C. Twitchett, 561-681. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Because the dynasty was marked by almost constant conflict, the population of Late Tang China is difficult to estimate. In 766 CE there were between 40 million and 55 million citizens, §REF§ (Rodzinski 1979, 130) Witold Rodzinski. 1979. <i>A History of China, Volume 1</i>. Oxford: Pergamon Press. §REF§ and in 900 CE there were between 60 million and 80 million. §REF§ (Lorge 2005, 182) Peter A. Lorge. 2005. <i>War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900‒1795</i>. Abingdon: Routledge. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "JR: This was previously named \"Later Tang\". However, Ruth Mostern noted that our use of \"Early Tang\" for 617-763 CE and \"Later Tang\" for 763-907 was confusing because \"Later Tang\" is used by historians to refer to a short-lived regime 923-37.", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-04-15T14:33:24.590598Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 12, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 29, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "many alliances were formed between Warring States kingdoms, usually military alliances against another kingdom, but were fleeting and quickly abandoned in favor of other alliances throughout this period (cf. Tin-bor Hui 2005)", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-03-22T10:42:45.416314Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "nominal allegiance", "polity": { "id": 424, "name": "CnWeiWS", "start_year": -445, "end_year": -225, "long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty", "new_name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The span of time between the mid-5th and mid-3rd centuries BCE in China is known as the Warring States period because it was dominated by conflicts between the seven independent states of Qin, Qi, Chu, Yan, Han, Zhao, and Wei. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Warring States.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/event/Warring-States\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/event/Warring-States</a>. Accessed June 6, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UFB8K653\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UFB8K653</a>. §REF§ The period was marked by the development of authoritarian leadership, the creation of standing armies, and the mass conscription of peasants into military service. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ New weapons included the crossbow, an improved iron sword, and armour. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ The first appearance of military specialists such as Sunzi, author of <i>The Art of War</i>, dates to the Warring States period. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ <br>The Warring States period was also a time of economic growth. The development of trade, occupational complexity, and markets created a class of merchants and private landlords. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14-15) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ Iron tools were used for agriculture and the use of irrigation and fertilizer became more widespread. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ Intellectualism flourished, with the rise of Confucian philosophers Mengzi and Xunzi. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Warring States.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/event/Warring-States\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/event/Warring-States</a>. Accessed June 6, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UFB8K653\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UFB8K653</a>. §REF§ <br>In the 5th century BCE, the state of Jin was divided into three states: Wei, Han and Zhao. Wei was one of the largest states of the period, ruling parts of modern Shanxi and later expanding to cover western Shandong and northern and western Henan. §REF§ (Theobald 2010) Theobald, Ulrich. 2017. “The Feudal State of Wei 魏 (www.chinaknowledge.de).” Accessed June 6. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-wei.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-wei.html</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-wei.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-wei.html</a>. §REF§ During the Warring States period, Wei mounted a number of successful military campaigns against neighbouring states, but fell into decline after a loss to Qi in 341 BCE. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Wei.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Wei-ancient-kingdom-China\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/place/Wei-ancient-kingdom-China</a>. Accessed June 6, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTXFRJWS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTXFRJWS</a>. §REF§ <br>The Warring States period ended with the rise of the Qin state and its defeat of the imperial Zhou court. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 22) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ Qin conquered the state of Wei in 225 BCE. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Wei.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Wei-ancient-kingdom-China\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/place/Wei-ancient-kingdom-China</a>. Accessed June 6, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTXFRJWS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTXFRJWS</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Several of China's major political institutions were created during the Warring States Period. §REF§ (Lewis 1999, 587) Lewis, M.E. 1999b. “Warring States Political History,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 587-650. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§ Zhou rulers were replaced by strong authoritarian rulers who governed independent territorial states. §REF§ (Lewis 1999, 587) Lewis, M.E. 1999b. “Warring States Political History,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 587-650. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§ These territorial rulers commanded dependent officials, who were responsible for registering and mobilizing peasant households for military service. §REF§ (Lewis 1999, 587) Lewis, M.E. 1999b. “Warring States Political History,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 587-650. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§ <br>It is difficult to find substantiated estimates for the population of the Wei state.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-04T15:40:00.776345Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 30, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Gaozu recognized authority of hereditary Kings ruling 10 territories in eastern and southern China as semi-independent chiefs, providing mainly military support and a portion of the tax revenue they collected to the Han Emperor. Many of these Kings seem to have been relatives of Gaozu and placed in their position by the Emperor to ensure loyalty.§REF§(Loewe 1986a,124)§REF§<br>Long-standing alliance, featuring cross-cultural marriage and the exchange of hostages and gifts, created between the Xiongnu and Han China for most of the 2nd century CE; the 'treaty' was frequently broken and renewed during the later Western Han period.§REF§(Ying-Shih 1986)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "vassalage", "polity": { "id": 251, "name": "CnWHan*", "start_year": -202, "end_year": 9, "long_name": "Western Han Empire", "new_name": "cn_western_han_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Western Han dynasty (also known as the Former Han) was the first lasting imperial dynasty in China.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a> Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a> §REF§ In 206 BCE, the first imperial Han emperor Liu Bang defeated the Qin and capture the capital of Xianyang, but was forced to yield to the rival Western Chu state.§REF§ (San 2014, 69) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§ A period of conflict between Chu and Han lasted until 202 BCE, when Liu Bang defeated the Western Chu and declared himself emperor of the Han dynasty. (San 68) He was the first commoner to become the emperor of China.§REF§ (San 2014, 69) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§<br>The seventh emperor of Han, Emperor Wu (r. 141-87 BCE), expanded the Western Han territory to modern Xinjiang and south China.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a> Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a> §REF§ During Wu Di’s rule Western Han dynasty encompassed modern China, northern Vietnam, Inner Mongolia, southern Manchuria, and parts of modern Korea.§REF§ -- “Han Dynasty.” Ancient History Encyclopedia.<a href=\"http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/\">http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/</a> Accessed June 12, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW</a> §REF§<br>The Western Han dynasty is known for its economic, technological, and artistic innovations. The opening of the Silk Road in 130 BCE linked China to Central Asia, Africa, Europe, and the Middle East.§REF§ -- “Han Dynasty.” Ancient History Encyclopedia.<a href=\"http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/\">http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/</a> Accessed June 12, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW</a> §REF§ The state controlled the production of salt, iron, and coins, and developed waterways and irrigation.§REF§(Theobald, 2010b) Theobald, Ulrich, 2010. “Han Period Science, Technology, and Inventions.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html</a> Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/</a> §REF§ The use of the iron plough and other iron agricultural tools became widespread.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010b) Theobald, Ulrich, 2010. “Han Period Science, Technology, and Inventions.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html</a> Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/</a> §REF§ Han artisans developed new techniques for metalwork, spinning, weaving, wood carving and pottery.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010b) Theobald, Ulrich, 2010. “Han Period Science, Technology, and Inventions.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html</a> Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/</a> §REF§<br>The Western Han were overthrown by Wang Mang, who ruled as the emperor of the Xin dynasty from 9-23 CE.§REF§ (Roberts 1999, 34) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a> §REF§<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Western Han dynasty was marked by a strong imperial government and a combination of centrally-controlled commandaries and semi-autonomous kingdoms.§REF§ (San 2014, 73) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§ The central government promoted Confucianism as a state doctrine.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a> Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a> §REF§ The Western Han gradually reduced the size of the semi-autonomous kingdoms within the empire. Many kings and marquises were eventually replaced by members of the imperial clan.§REF§ (San 2014, 73) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§ Commanderies were ruled a civil governor and military governor and were divided into counties or districts.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a> Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a> §REF§<br>An imperial academy was established in 124 BCE. Qualification through Confucian examinations slowly replaced hereditary assignment of government positions.§REF§ (Roberts 1999, 34) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a> §REF§ Although exams were used only sporadically due to the significantly aristocratic society of this period. §REF§(Mostern, Ruth. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email)§REF§<br><br/>The population of the Western Han empire was 57.6 million in 2 CE§REF§ (Keay 2009, 144) Keay, J. 2009. China, A History, HarperPress, London. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ACHZRD\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ACHZRD</a> §REF§, and 60 million at its peak.§REF§ (Zhao 2015, 56) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL:<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QBD9EVZQ\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QBD9EVZQ</a> §REF§ The Western Han capital of Chang’an was home to between 250,000 and 400,000 people. §REF§ (Chase-Dunn spreadsheet)§REF§§REF§(Loewe 1986 a ) Loewe, M. 1986a. \"The Former Han,\" in Twitchett and Loewe (eds.) The Cambridge History of China. Vol. I: The Qi'in and Han Empires, 221 BC - 220 AD. Cambridge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7NCDWJJ2\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7NCDWJJ2</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-04T15:41:13.542749Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }