Polity Suprapolity Relations List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Suprapolity Relations.
GET /api/general/polity-suprapolities/?ordering=created_date&page=3
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Tauris, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BBKM3AR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-06-12T12:01:57.876173Z", "modified_date": "2024-06-12T12:01:57.876186Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "personal union", "polity": { "id": 809, "name": "pl_piast_dyn_2", "start_year": 1139, "end_year": 1382, "long_name": "Polish Kingdom - Piast Dynasty Fragmented Period", "new_name": "pl_piast_dyn_2", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "When Bolesław III Wrymouth died on 28 October 1138, he was aware of the potential for conflict among his sons and devised a testament aiming to prevent the fragmentation of the kingdom. His will, known as the Testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LUJ3NYJU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU</b></a>§REF§, divided Poland among his sons, granting them hereditary duchies while trying to maintain some level of unity under the senioral principle. This principle established that the eldest member of the dynasty, holding the Seniorate Province with Kraków as its capital, would have a primacy over the other dukes and the right to be called the High Duke of Poland. The \"Senioral Principle\" was soon broken, leading to a period of nearly 200 years of disintegration known as feudal fragmentation which divided the Polish state into several semi-independent principalities without a single ruler governed by various branches of the Piast dynasty.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</b></a>§REF§ \r\nThe reunification of Poland under Władysław I in 14th century marked the end of fragmentation. His son, Casimir III the Great (1333-1370) strengthened royal authority. Casimir's reign, devoid of major external conflicts, allowed for significant internal development, including the founding of the University of Krakow in 1364, one of the oldest universities in Europe.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</b></a>§REF§\r\nThe end of the Piast dynasty in 1370, with the death of Casimir III, led to the initiation of the Angevin and later Jagiellonian dynasties, under which Poland entered into a union with Lithuania.§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LUJ3NYJU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "I expanded the end date of this polity to include the last personal union between Hungary and Poland during Louis I of Hungary's reign.", "created_date": "2024-02-28T14:45:23.434662Z", "modified_date": "2024-06-12T12:00:04.748967Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 25, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": null, "other_polity": { "id": 811, "name": "hu_later_dyn", "start_year": 1302, "end_year": 1526, "long_name": "Hungary Kingdom - Anjou and Later Dynasties", "new_name": "hu_later_dyn", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "Following the Árpád dynasty's end, Hungary entered a period marked by the Angevin and Jagiellonian dynasties, leading up to the significant Battle of Mohács in 1526.§REF§László Kontler, Millennium in Central Europe: A History of Hungary (Budapest: Atlantisz, 1999).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CSSN8HUW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CSSN8HUW</b></a>§REF§The Angevin kings, notably Charles I and Louis I, expanded Hungary's influence in Central Europe through military campaigns and administrative reforms, enhancing the kingdom's power. The era saw Hungary's involvement in European politics intensify, especially under the rule of Sigismund of Luxembourg, who linked Hungary with Bohemia and Poland, aiming to strengthen royal authority and address external threats, notably from the Ottoman Empire.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BBKM3AR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR</b></a>§REF§ The period was characterized by dynastic changes, efforts towards centralization, and significant cultural developments, yet it also faced challenges such as internal strife and the looming threat of Ottoman conquest. This era concluded with the devastating defeat at Mohács,§REF§ Gábor Ágoston and Bruce Alan Masters, eds., Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, Facts on File library of world history (New York, NY: Facts On File, 2009).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KJPGPVLD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KJPGPVLD</b></a>§REF§ leading to Hungary's fragmentation and marking the end of medieval Hungarian sovereignty.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": "2024-03-01T11:47:44.608679Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-11T12:59:02.413834Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 97, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 17, "name": "Hawaii1", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1200, "long_name": "Hawaii I", "new_name": "us_hawaii_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Hawai'i, also known as the Big Island, is the largest island of the Hawaiian archipelago. Recent estimates for the date of initial settlement by Polynesian voyagers have varied from 800 to 1250 CE, but the latest Bayesian model, based on palaeoenvironmental data and a carefully defined set of archaeological radiocarbon dates, suggests that the archipelago was first colonized between 1000 and 1100. §REF§ (Athens, Rieth and Dye 2014) J. Stephen Athens, Timothy M. Rieth and Thomas S. Dye. 2014. 'A Paleoenvironmental and Archaeological Model-Based Age Estimate for the Colonization of Hawai'i'. <i>American Antiquity</i> 79(1): 144-55. §REF§ Our 'Hawaii 1' designates the earliest phase of Hawai'i's prehistory, from around 1000 to 1200, before most of the changes characteristic of Kirch's 'expansion period', including a rapid rise in population, took place. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 127) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>According to reconstructions of Hawaiki, the ancestral Polynesian homeland, ancient Polynesians recognized the authority of the <i>*ariki</i>, that is, the head of a lineage, who had both secular and sacred authority and was in charge of most, if not all, rituals. §REF§ (Kirch 2012, 45) Patrick V. Kirch. 2012. <i>A Shark Going Inland Is My Chief</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ However, a few thousand years separate Ancestral Polynesians from the earliest Hawaiians, and it is not clear how much the latter retained of the former's culture and sociopolitical organization. The earliest island-wide unitary kingdom on the Big Island emerged around 1580; §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 174) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ before then the Big Island was probably divided into several small, independent polities. §REF§ (Kirch 2016, personal communication) §REF§ <br>The founding population was probably about 100 people, due to the limited capacity of the canoes the first settlers likely used to reach the islands. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 129) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ This population probably grew somewhat between 1000 and 1200, but no up-to-date estimates could be found in the literature — an estimate of 20,000 inhabitants for the entire archipelago around 1100 dates to 1985, when the earliest phase of human occupation was thought to have begun around 600 CE. §REF§ (Kirch 1985, 302) Patrick V. Kirch. 1985. <i>Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory</i>. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 33, "name": "Big Island Hawaii", "subregion": "Polynesia", "longitude": "-155.916989000000", "latitude": "19.528931000000", "capital_city": "Kona", "nga_code": "USHI", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "Oceania-Australia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 30, "name": "Polynesia", "subregions_list": "Polynesia", "mac_region": { "id": 8, "name": "Oceania-Australia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 284, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 521, "name": "SdKusht", "start_year": -747, "end_year": -656, "long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period", "new_name": "eg_kushite", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Towards the end of the preceding Thebes-Libyan period, the northern reaches of the Nile River were invaded by Amun-worshipping Kushites from the south who had built up a strong state based in Napata, in the Sudan, at the foot of Gebel Barkal mountain. §REF§ (Leclant 1981, 285) J. Leclant. 1981. 'The Empire of Kush: Napata and Meroe', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa</i>, edited by G. Mokhtar, 278-97. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The first Kushite ruler of Egypt, Piye, was crowned in Napata; §REF§ (Török 1997, 154) László Török. 1997. <i>The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meriotic Civilization</i> Handbook of Oriental Studies, No. 31. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ this remained the capital of the Kushite Empire until c. 716 BCE, when the entire Nile Valley up to the delta was acquired under Shabaka, §REF§ (Leclant 1981, 280) J. Leclant. 1981. 'The Empire of Kush: Napata and Meroe', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa</i>, edited by G. Mokhtar, 278-97. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ who then moved the capital and royal residence from Napata to Memphis in order to emphasize the foreign dynasty's respect for traditional Egyptian customs. §REF§ (Török 1997, 167) László Török. 1997. <i>The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meriotic Civilization</i> Handbook of Oriental Studies, No. 31. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 349) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Kushite rule of Egypt (the Twenty-fifth Dynasty) occurred within an extremely complex political climate that has been the cause of much debate among historians. The Twenty-third Dynasty of the preceding Thebes-Libyan Period survived throughout this period, only to be toppled by the first ruler of the Saite Kingdom, Psamtek I (r. 664-610; Twenty-sixth Dynasty). The Egyptologist Jeremy Pope concludes that the 'Double Kingdom' (Kushite and Libyo-Egyptian) had some form of 'nominal unity' across a large territory. §REF§ (Pope 2014, 280) Jeremy Pope. 2014. <i>The Double Kingdom Under Taharqo</i>. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>Population and political organization<br>Scholars debate the extent to which there was a centralized bureaucracy in Egypt under Kushite rule. In Lower Nubia, the Kushite king may have exercised power through 'invisible elites' such as merchants, pastoralists, and local potentates - 'a striking contrast with the bureaucratic formalization of Upper Egypt'. §REF§ (Pope 2014, 191) Jeremy Pope. 2014. <i>The Double Kingdom Under Taharqo</i>. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Archaeologist Robert Morkot has argued that the Twenty-fifth Dynasty kept the Egyptian administrative system largely unchanged, making only relatively minor alterations such as appointing new individuals or families to official positions. §REF§ (Morkot 2013, 963) Robert G. Morkot. 2014. 'Thebes under the Kushites', in <i>Tombs of the South Asasif Necropolis: Thebes, Karakhamun (TT 223), and Karabasken (TT 391) in the Twenty-fifth Dynasty</i>, edited by Elena Pischikova, 5-22. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. §REF§ However, Jeremy Pope believes that we cannot use New Kingdom analogies to draw conclusions about Kushite governing principles, and that 'central authority and administration had disappeared' in this period. §REF§ (Pope 2014, 203) Jeremy Pope. 2014. <i>The Double Kingdom Under Taharqo</i>. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The Egyptian position of vizier probably continued but was 'deprived of effective power'. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 348) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>What is not in doubt is that the Kushite king was a powerful military ruler and, in the Libyan tradition, likely made marriage alliances with the elite throughout Egypt. §REF§ (Morkot 2013, 961) Robert G. Morkot. 2014. 'Thebes under the Kushites', in <i>Tombs of the South Asasif Necropolis: Thebes, Karakhamun (TT 223), and Karabasken (TT 391) in the Twenty-fifth Dynasty</i>, edited by Elena Pischikova, 5-22. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. §REF§ In general, Kushite rule drew its power from military capacity and the day-to-day workings of local government were left in the hands of the Egyptian dynasts. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 243) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Nubians and Egyptians also shared a common set of religious practices. King Piye, who successfully invaded Egypt, boasted of his divine legitimacy on a stele: 'Amon of Napata has made me sovereign over every people', §REF§ (Leclant 1981, 280) J. Leclant. 1981. 'The Empire of Kush: Napata and Meroe', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa</i>, edited by G. Mokhtar, 278-97. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ and established an official cult of Amun around 780-760 BCE; his sister became priestess. §REF§ (Török 1997, 144) László Török. 1997. <i>The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meriotic Civilization</i> Handbook of Oriental Studies, No. 31. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The existing powerful religious offices in Upper Egypt were also important for Kushite rule: the position of God's Wife (or Divine Adoratrice) at Thebes was maintained due to its political utility, and Kushite royals were installed as high priests. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 243) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In earlier times, the high priest at Thebes had exercised both civil and military authority, but the Kushites maintained their own Kushite military commanders, while civil authority was given initially to Kushite governors and later to 'Theban bureaucrats'. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 208) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The end of Kushite rule in Egypt and the beginning of the Saite Dynasty furnishes a rare example of a peaceful transition, involving the adoption of the Saite princess Nitocris by the last Kushite Divine Adoratrice of Amun, Amenirdis II, in 656 BC. §REF§ (Morkot 2013) Robert G. Morkot. 2014. 'Thebes under the Kushites', in <i>Tombs of the South Asasif Necropolis: Thebes, Karakhamun (TT 223), and Karabasken (TT 391) in the Twenty-fifth Dynasty</i>, edited by Elena Pischikova, 5-22. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. §REF§ <br>Kushite-period Memphis, where the chief royal residence was based, §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 349) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ is thought to have had a population of perhaps 65,000; the first capital, Napata, about 43,000. The Kushite Empire spanned roughly 600,000-700,000 square kilometres, but it is difficult to find reliable estimates for its population.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 94, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 66, "name": "GrCrGeo", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -710, "long_name": "Geometric Crete", "new_name": "gr_crete_geometric", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The eleventh century BCE marks the beginning of radical changes in southern Greece generally as well as Crete specifically, largely resulting from the invasion from the North of the Dorians §REF§ (Whitley 1998, 27-39) J. Whitley. 1998. 'From Minoans to Eterocretans: the Praisos region 1200-500 BC,' in <i>Post-Minoan Crete: Proceedings of the First Colloquium on Post-Minoan Crete held by the British School at Athens and the Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 10-11 November 1995</i>, edited by W.G. Cavanagh and M. Curtis, M. (eds), London: British School at Athens. §REF§ Overall, however, this period is relatively poorly understood, with no written sources and few archaeological finds. Most likely, Cretans mainly dedicated themselves to farming and pastoralism. Writing disappeared and artistic expression became more abstracted and geometrical. Things started to change in the eighth century, when trade routes were revitalized, and Cretans were able to capitalize on the island's premier location in the Eastern Mediterranean. And the trade in artefacts and products was accompanied by the exchange of new ideas and technologies. §REF§ Kostis Christakis, pers. comm., May 2016 §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Not much is known about either the island's population numbers at the time, or its political organization. In terms of population, very few settlements have been excavated, and none of these have yielded enough data for a credible estimate; in terms of political organization, it is likely that elite families were in charge but not much else could be said. §REF§ Kostis Christakis, pers. comm., May 2016 §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 270, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "PkIndGr", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10, "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "new_name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Indo-Greek 'kingdom' was created after the Greco-Bactrians invaded northern India from 180 BCE. It consisted of a number of dynastic polities that ruled from regional capitals and formed a single entity only to the extent their rulers were able to collaborate. More than 30 kings are known, who were often in conflict with each other. §REF§ (Bernard 2012, 42-52) Paul Bernard. 'Ai Khanum: A Greek Colony in Post-Alexandrian Central Asia, or How to Be Greek in an Oriental Milieu.' in Elisabetta Valtz Fino. Joan Aruz. ed. 2012. <i>Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations Along the Silk Road.</i> The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York. §REF§ <br>Bopearachchi suggests the period was founded by two kings, Demetrius I and Agathocles, who ruled around 185 BCE, but Jakobsson (2009) believes that a later king known as Menander was \"instrumental in the creation of the era.\" §REF§ (Jakobsson 2009) Jakobsson, Jens. Who Founded the Indo-Greek Era of 186/5 B.C.E.? Dec 2009. The Classical Quarterly. New Series. Vol. 59. No.2. pp. 505-510. §REF§ The lack of consistent or reliable sources from either Western or Chinese sources means that much of what we know is speculative and reliant on numismatic evidence. §REF§ (Guillaume 1986, 1-16) Olivier Guillaume. 1986. \"An Analysis of the Modes of Reconstruction of the Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek History.\" Studies in History 2, no. 1 §REF§ <br>It is likely the rulers, who simultaneously produced their own coinage, ruled different parts of the Indo-Greek polity and employed their own administrators. §REF§ (Jakobsson 2009. 505-510) Jens Jakobsson. Who Founded the Indo-Greek Era of 186/5 B.C.E.? Dec 2009. The Classical Quarterly. New Series. Vol. 59. No.2. §REF§ Governance of the Indo-Greek region was for the most part through personal kingship and organization extended only to the limits of a particular king's power. §REF§ (Jakobsson 2009, 505-510) Jens Jakobsson, Jens. Who Founded the Indo-Greek Era of 186/5 B.C.E.? Dec 2009. The Classical Quarterly. New Series. Vol. 59. No.2. §REF§ <br>After 145 BCE, Successive nomadic invasions by Scythians and other nomads isolated the Indo-Greeks from the wider Hellenic world. By the beginning of the first century CE, the Greco-Bactrian state was extinguished as an independent entity. §REF§ (Bernard 2012, 42-52) Paul Bernard. 'Ai Khanum: A Greek Colony in Post-Alexandrian Central Asia, or How to Be Greek in an Oriental Milieu.' in Elisabetta Valtz Fino. Joan Aruz. ed. 2012. <i>Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations Along the Silk Road.</i> The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York. §REF§ <br>Of the legacy of the civilization, the Greek alphabet survived until the Islamic conquest as the script of the Bactrian language, and the conversion of a Indo-Greek King to Buddhism became a part of the zeitgeist of the Indian collective historical memory. §REF§ (Bernard 2012, 42-52) Paul Bernard. 'Ai Khanum: A Greek Colony in Post-Alexandrian Central Asia, or How to Be Greek in an Oriental Milieu.' in Elisabetta Valtz Fino. Joan Aruz. ed. 2012. <i>Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations Along the Silk Road.</i> The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-11-20T10:59:20.104782Z", "home_nga": { "id": 13, "name": "Kachi Plain", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "67.628836000000", "latitude": "29.377664000000", "capital_city": "Mehrgarh", "nga_code": "PK", "fao_country": "Pakistan", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 38, "name": "Pakistan", "subregions_list": "Pakistan", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 290, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " unknown", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "uncoded", "polity": { "id": 160, "name": "TrBrzER", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -2000, "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Bronze Age", "new_name": "tr_konya_eba", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Early Bronze Age period in Anatolia is complicated and complex topic. This period begins with controversy, because the transition from Late Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age is not clear. Some scholars argue that beginning of Early Bronze age should be dated to around 3000 BCE.<br><br/>This is clearly visible at the monumental graves, known as Royal Tombs at Alaca Höyük site. These tombs yielded over 700 items that we can grouped into 12 typological categories. A multiplicity of materials were used in those grave goods - from metals (copper, bronze, silver, gold, electrum, iron, lead, haematite), stones (carnelian, rock crystal, chalcedony, flint, lapis lazuli), frit, faience, pottery, to bone and textiles. The most spectacular findings were anthropomorphic figurines, which were made by the combination more than one metal in a single object. In these Royal Tombs we can find also remains of ceremonial funerary feasts. Some animals were slaughtered, the oxen being the most common.<br>Many sites of this period were well fortified. Proof of wooden palisades and stone walls was found in Karataş-Semayük, and just stone walls in for example Taurus and Demircihöyük. At Alişar Hüyük, complex fortifications were excavated - a well constructed stronghold wall, and 10 meters of fortification on the terrace. One of these walls was set behind the other, and onto it rectangular-shaped bastions were constructed. A lot of handheld weapons were also found in Central Anatolia Plateau, for example: swords, daggers, pikes, halberds, spears, battle axes and warclubs. At the Demircihöyük and Karataş-Semayük sites, there were extramural Early Bronze Age cemeteries - altogether there were about 900 pithoi burials, and the majority of bodies was facing Southeast.<br>The pottery of Anatolian Early Bronze Age was distinctive by red monochrome wares. In terms of animal remains, it can be concluded that Sheep and goats were most dominant (at Acemhöyük), representing 63-68 percent of the faunal remains, followed by cattle and pigs.<br><br/><br>Wood or rather wooden planks were used in Royal Tombs at Alaca Höyük. \"The burials consisted of a rectangular pit roofed with wooden planks.\" §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimanksy, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, p. 214. §REF§ <br>Flint/Obsidian present §REF§ Knitter D. \"Concepts of Centrality and Models of Exchange in Prehistoric Western Anatolia\" In: \"Landscape Archaeology. Proceedings of the International Conference Held in Berlin, 6th - 8th June 2012\", p. 363. §REF§ §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimanksy, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, p. 214. §REF§ <br>Building stone present Building stone was used e.g. in Royal Tombs at Alaca Höyük. \"The lower parts of these shafts consisted of rectangular stone-lined pits in wchich a single person was normally buried\" §REF§ Düring B. S., \"The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies.\", Cambridge 2011, p. 291. §REF§ \"The most numerous examples of the megaron plan are found in the Early Bronze Age village at Karataş (Troy I-II period), where stone foundations of over thirty such structures have been uncovered in recent excavations.\" §REF§ Warner J., \"The Megaron and Apsidal House in Early Bronze Age Western Anatolia: New Evidence from Karataş\", In: \"American Journal of Archaeology\", Vol. 83, No. 2 (Apr., 1979), p. 138. §REF§ <br>Copper present E.g. grave goods §REF§ Düring B. S., \"The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies.\", Cambridge 2011, p. 291. §REF§ <br>Tin/Arsenic present Kestel §REF§ Yener K. A., \"An Early Bronze Age Tin Production Site at Göltepe, Turkey.\", In: \"The Oriental Institute News and Notes\", Vol. 140 (1994) §REF§ \"The Kestel-Göltepe complex is vast. The mine itself comprises a network of eight galleries, extending in various directions. Some 4500 cubic meters of ore were extracted, often through precariously narrow tunnels, using fire and large ground stone hammers to shatter the ore. Even if the ore mined in antiquity were low grade, containing only 1 % of tin like some the nodules found in the excavations, the size of the galleries point to the produciotn of some 115 tons of tin.\" §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, pp. 200-2001. §REF§ <br>Iron present E.g. grave goods §REF§ Düring B. S., \"The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies.\", Cambridge 2011, p. 291. §REF§ . Iron Dagger §REF§ Düring B. S., \"The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies.\", Cambridge 2011, p. 292. §REF§ <br>Material to make ornaments gold, silver, carnelian, jade, rock crystal \"In terms of jewellery, we should note the ability of the craftsmen to combine gold and silver with precious stones (carnelian, jade, and rock crystal), a technique especially favored for pins, and at the same time the conspicious absence of filigree and granulation.\" §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, pp. 208-209. §REF§ <br>Lead present Most of all as grave goods §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, pp. 214-217 §REF§ <br>Agropastoral with pastoral dominating Sheep and goats were the dominant component of the animal economy at Acemhöyük III and II, representing 63-68 percent of the faunal remains, followed by cattle and pigs. This is similar to the situation observed at contemporary sites on the central plateau including Kaman Kalehhöyük, Küultepe, and Çadır Höyük. §REF§ Arbuckle B., \"Pastoralism, Provisioning, and Power at Bronze Age Acemhöyük, Turkey\", In: \"American Anthropologist\", Vol. 114 (2012), Issue 3, p. 466. §REF§ <br>Iron present Pieces of iron object found in Tomb L in Alacahöyük §REF§ Yalçin Ü. and H. G., \"Reassessing Antropomorphic Metal Figurines of Alacahöyük, Anatolia\", In: \"Near Eastern Archeology\" Vol. 76:1 (2013), p. 41. §REF§ .<br>Metals present §REF§ Efe T., \"The Theories of the 'Great Caravan Route' between Cilicia and Troy: The Early Bronze Age III Period in Inland Western Anatolia\" In: \"Anatolian Studies\", Vol. 57, Transanatolia: Bridging the Gap between East and West inthe Archaeology of Ancient Anatolia (2007), p. 49 §REF§ <br>Raw materials present Melian Obsidian in Beycesultan §REF§ Knitter D. \"Concepts of Centrality and Models of Exchange in Prehistoric Western Anatolia\" In: \"Landscape Archaeology. Proceedings of the International Conference Held in Berlin, 6th - 8th June 2012\", p. 363. §REF§ <br>Pottery present Trojan <i>depas</i> vessel, two-handled tankards, wheelmade plain plates and bowls §REF§ Ancient Anatolia, 10,000-323 B.C.E, S.R. Steadman, G.McMahon, Oxford University Press, 2011. Chapter 10 §REF§ <br>Coppersmith present §REF§ Yakar T., \"Regional and Local Schools of Metalwork in Early Bronze Age Anatolia: Part I\", In: \"Anatolian Studies\", Vol. 34 (1984), p. 75. §REF§ <br>Pottery present §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, p. 197. §REF§ <br>Butcher present §REF§ Arbuckle B., \"Pastoralism, Provisioning, and Power at Bronze Age Acemhöyük, Turkey\", In: \"American Anthropologist\", Vol. 114 (2012), Issue 3, p. 468. §REF§ <br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 93, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 74, "name": "GrCrEmr", "start_year": 824, "end_year": 961, "long_name": "The Emirate of Crete", "new_name": "gr_crete_emirate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Between 824 and 962, Crete was ruled by Andalusian Arabs. The latter had taken the island from the Byzantines (who subsequently lost the control of the maritime trade routes in the Aegean specifically and the eastern Mediterranean generally), and made it into an emirate, with Khandax, i.e. modern-day Heraklion, as its capital. The surviving evidence for the organization of the emirate and the Cretan society of the period is, unfortunately, scanty, with almost no archaeology and few, contradictory written sources. The original Byzantine sources are biased against the Arabs, and quite a few modern scholars have taken these sources at face value, presenting the Arabs as uncivilized barbarians, overly concerned with piracy. In fact, based on what is known about Arabic civilization in the rest of the Mediterranean at this time, it is likely that the Emirate of Crete was similarly sophisticated in its culture and social organization, though to its prolonged animosity with the Byzantines, it almost certainly retained a strong militaristic character as well. In 962, the Byzantines regained control of the island. §REF§ (Christides 2011, 17) Vassilios Christides. 2011. 'The cycle of the Arab-Byzantine struggle in Crete (ca. 824/6-961 AD) in the illuminate manuscript of Skylitzes (Codex Martinensis Graecus Vitr. 26-2)'. <i>Craeco-Arabica</i> 9: 17. §REF§ §REF§ (Christides 1984) Vassilios Christides. 1984. <i>The Conquest of Crete by Arabs (ca. 824). A Turning Point in the Struggle Between Byzantium and Islam</i>. Athens: Akademia Athenon. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>A rough estimate of the island's population at this time is of 250,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Papadopoulos 1948, 37) Ioannes B. Papadopoulos. 1948. <i>Η Κρήτη υπό τους Σαρακηνούς (824-961)</i>. Athens: Byzantinisch-Neugriechischen Jahrbücher. §REF§ In terms of its political organization, Crete was divided into forty districts and was ruled by an emir who only nominally recognized the Caliph of Baghdad. §REF§ (Christides 1984) Vassilios Christides. 1984. <i>The Conquest of Crete by Arabs (ca. 824). A Turning Point in the Struggle Between Byzantium and Islam</i>. Athens: Akademia Athenon. §REF§ <br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 285, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "SyCalUm", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750, "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "new_name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Umayyad Caliphate was formed in 661 CE by Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan following the assassination of Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. §REF§ (Madelung 1997, 108, 297) Wilferd Madelung. 1997. <i>The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It ended with the defeat of the Umayyads by the Abbasids in the Third Fitna (a series of Muslim civil wars) in 750 CE. §REF§ (Esposito, ed. 2003, 691) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Ummayad Caliphs, based in Damascus in Syria, ruled a large territory stretching from the Near East all the way through North Africa and into southern Spain.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The caliph was a tribal patriarch and head of the <i>ummah</i>, the entire Islamic community. The central government of the Umayyad Caliphate was almost non-existent at the start of the period but entered a more developed stage in the mid-8th century. One of the reasons for this lack of central administration was the exceptionally successful Arab-Muslim army combined with the existence of functioning bureaucracies in the former Sassanid and Byzantine domains, which were left largely intact. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 55) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Thus, under Muawiya - the first Ummayad Caliph - the ruler was 'surrounded by Arab chiefs' with no other central administration. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 80-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ At Damascus, an administrative system staffed by permanent officials §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 36-38) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ dates from the reigns of al-Malik (685-705 CE) and al-Walid (705-715 CE). §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 80-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The caliphs, from their residence in Damascus (661-744 CE) and then Harran (744-750 CE), employed a chamberlain to manage visitors and regulate daily affairs, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 80-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and maintained an office of the chancery §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 50-51) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ with officials called <i>diwans</i> to manage the collection of taxes and payment of salaries. §REF§ (Kennedy 2001, 88) Hugh N. Kennedy. 2001. <i>The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ In order to impose their authority over the provinces, which had a combined population of up to 33 million, §REF§ (Blankinship 1994, 37-38) Khalid Y. Blankinship. 1994. <i>The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd Al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads</i>. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. §REF§ the Umayyads typically sent civil and military governors (<i>amel</i> and <i>amir</i>). §REF§ (Lambton 2011) Ann K. S. Lambton. 2011. 'Cities iii: Administration and Social Organization', in <i>Encyclopedia Iranica</i> V/6, 607-23; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a> (accessed 2 April 2017). §REF§ In the regions they conquered, the Ummayads had no choice but to use the resident staff because institutions to train and educate bureaucrats had not yet developed in the Arab Muslim context. In Egypt, for the first century of Umayyad rule, 'all the provincial officials were Christians'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 17) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The Umayyad Caliphate was thus an exceptionally multicultural empire with a diverse governmental and cultural heritage.<br>This diversity was reflected in the number of languages spoken across the territory conquered by Muslims: from Basque in the far west to Berber and African Romance languages along the southern shores of the Mediterranean, and Aramaic, Turkic, Hebrew, Armenian and Kurdish in the east. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 126) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The use of Arabic as an administrative language began in Iraq in 697 CE, but spread outwards to Syria, Egypt and, by 700 CE, Khurasan in modern-day northeastern Iran. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 36-38) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In Egypt, the adoption of Arabic as the language of local government took over 100 years; initially, almost all papyruses were written in Greek. The first known bilingual Greek-Arabic document dates to 643 CE, and the last to 719. The earliest known Egyptian document written exclusively in Arabic is dated to 709 CE, and Greek was still being used up until 780 CE. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 23) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "JR: edited long name from Ummayad to Umayyad", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-03-27T09:30:27.298805Z", "home_nga": { "id": 8, "name": "Southern Mesopotamia", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "44.420000000000", "latitude": "32.470000000000", "capital_city": "Babylon (Hillah)", "nga_code": "IQ", "fao_country": "Iraq", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 61, "name": "Levant", "subregions_list": "Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 288, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 462, "name": "TjSaraz", "start_year": -3500, "end_year": -2000, "long_name": "Sarazm", "new_name": "tj_sarasm", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "This polity is named after an ancient settlement site at Sarazm, located in modern Tajikistan. The period runs from its initial settlement around 3500 BCE to the site's abandonment c. 2000 BCE. §REF§ (Anthony 2010, 420) Anthony, David W. 2010. The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MNNVQRA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MNNVQRA</a>. §REF§ This period at Sarazm represents the first urban phase in Sogdiana and has yielded evidence of ceramic production, agriculture, irrigation and metallurgy. §REF§ (de la Vaissière 2011) Vaissière, É. de la. 2011. “Sogdiana III: History and Archeology.” Encyclopædia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9AS4QQVB\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9AS4QQVB</a>. §REF§ Ceramic evidence, along with the presence of seashells, suggests that contacts were maintained with different areas of Central Asia. §REF§ (Masson 1992, 232) Masson, V. M. 1992. “The Bronze Age In Khorasan and Transoxania.” In History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume I: The Dawn of Civilizations: Earliest Times to 700 B.C., edited by A. H. Dani and V. M. Masson, 225-46. Paris: UNESCO. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JZ5DSUEB/q/masson\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JZ5DSUEB/q/masson</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Isakov 1994, 4-5) Isakov, A. 1994. “Sarazm: An Agricultural Center of Ancient Sogdiana.” Bulletin of the Asia Institute 8: 1-12. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NWVCFNW7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NWVCFNW7</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Due to the nature of the remaining evidence, the political organization of Sarazm is not known. While 100 hectares have been excavated at the site, the settlement area expanded and contracted throughout its existence, making a definite population estimate difficult for this period. §REF§ (de la Vaissière 2011) Vaissière, É. de la. 2011. “Sogdiana III: History and Archeology.” Encyclopædia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9AS4QQVB\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9AS4QQVB</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 23, "name": "Sogdiana", "subregion": "Turkestan", "longitude": "66.938170000000", "latitude": "39.631284000000", "capital_city": "Samarkand", "nga_code": "UZ", "fao_country": "Uzbekistan", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 13, "name": "Turkestan", "subregions_list": "Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 92, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 67, "name": "GrCrArc", "start_year": -710, "end_year": -500, "long_name": "Archaic Crete", "new_name": "gr_crete_archaic", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Crete is a large island in the Eastern Mediterranean. The Archaic Crete (7th-6th centuries) is divided in the following periods: Orientalizing or Daedalic or Early Archaic (710-600 BCE) and Archaic Archaic (600-500).<br>There was no capital city as Crete was divided into territorial entities, each one centered upon a city that served as the main political and economic centre of its well-defined region. Political, military and religious control was exercised by the Kosmoi, a board of 3 to 10 annually elected nobles. §REF§ Lembesi, A. 1987. \"Η Κρητών Πολιτεία,\" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, Heraklion, 166-72. §REF§ §REF§ Lembesi, A. 1987. \"Η Κρητών Πολιτεία,\" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, Heraklion, 166-72. §REF§ <br>No information could be found in the sources consulted regarding the polity's overall population, however the largest settlement, Knossos, is estimated to have housed about 4,000 people.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }