Polity Suprapolity Relations List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Suprapolity Relations.
GET /api/general/polity-suprapolities/?ordering=-comment&page=3
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Obviously he was helped in this by Persian technicians.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 105) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "polity": { "id": 130, "name": "IrSasn2", "start_year": 488, "end_year": 642, "long_name": "Sasanid Empire II", "new_name": "ir_sassanid_emp_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "In the final Sassanid period (488-642 CE), best known for the reign of Khusrau I, the Sassanid realm was managed through provincial governors called Shahr §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 124-135) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ and vassal kings appointed by the Sassanid King of Kings. Its population peaked at about 22 million at around 600 CE a time when the Empire was disintegrating.<br>The long reigns of Kavad I (499-531 CE) and Khusrau I (531-579 CE) saw many reforms, such as to the tax system and the military. Khusrau I is credited with wise leadership and is known as \"Plato's philosopher king.\" §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 27-37) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ Khusrau I (531-579 CE) promoted minor nobility to official positions and reduced the power of aristocrats, placing tax collection in the hands of officials directly under his own control. §REF§ (Chegini 1996, 47) N N Chegini. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ Khusrau I also made some important structural reforms to the military which removed the Commander-in-Chief (Eran-Spahbad) and divided the empire into four regions, each under the control of a regional field marshal (Spahbads). §REF§ (Farrokh 2005, 3-27) Kevah Farrokh. 2005. Sassanian Elite Cavalry AD 224-642. Osprey Publishing. §REF§ This change enabled the Sassanids to more quickly respond to the external threats of invasion.<br>After the high point of Khusrau I internal instability became the norm and the ruling dynasty had almost wiped itself out by the time the Arabs conquered the last Sassanid stronghold at Persis in 650 CE. Hamizid IV (579-590 CE), who followed Khosrau I killed many of the nobility and was harsh to the priests. Hormizd IV was deposed 589-590 CE by his generals and the nobility who put on the throne his son, Khusrau II. §REF§ (Daryaee 2012, 199) Touraj Daryaee. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ Kushrau II was himself deposed by nobility and priests in 628 CE. §REF§ (Daryaee 2012, 200) Touraj Daryaee. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ Kavad II (628-630 CE) conducted a fratricide, killing all the male heirs in the Sasanid family, and was assassinated. §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 31) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 169, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " nominal allegiance: [204-192 BCE] After the death of Ptolemy IV, Antiochus became a 'friend and ally' of the Roman Empire, but without a formal treaty. §REF§Dimitriev, S. 2011. Antiochus III: A Friend and Ally of the Roman People. Klio. 93 (1). Pp104-130. p126-8§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "nominal allegiance", "polity": { "id": 108, "name": "IrSeleu", "start_year": -312, "end_year": -63, "long_name": "Seleucids", "new_name": "ir_seleucid_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Seleucid Empire arose in the years following the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE and the subsequent division of his empire. Alexander’s generals each ruled part of the empire, including Seleucus I who became leader of the Babylonian territory in 319 BCE as a reward for having helped Alexander eliminate the regent Perdiccas §REF§ (Sherwin-White and Kurht 1993, 10) S Sherwin-White. A Kurht. 1993. From Samarkhand to Sardis; A new approach to the Seleucid empire. London: Duckworth. §REF§ . This date does not however mark the start of the Seleucid Empire as Seleucus was ousted by the rival Antigonus in 315 BCE and did not return to power until 312 BCE, after which the Seleucid Empire truly began as Seleucus began to extent his domain to create an empire large enough to include territories in the Central Asian steppe to European Thrace §REF§ (Kosmin 2013, 678) P J Kosmin. 2013. Alexander the Great and the Seleucids in Iran. In, Potts, D. T (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.671-689. §REF§ . Seleucus’ territorial achievements were matched by only one of his successors, Antiochus III, whose rule began 60 years later. The last rulers of the empire could not match the charisma and drive of these earlier rulers, especially in the face of growing powers to the west and east of the empire (Rome and Parthia respectively). The empire declined in size and influence until it was taken over by Rome in 63 BCE.<br>The Seleucid Empire continued to exert the Hellenistic influences of Alexander the Great’s empire, but like Alexander, the rulers of the Seleucid Empire generally allowed other religions and languages to continue and flourish (a notable exception being the persecution of the Jews by Antiochus IV) §REF§ (Kosmin 2013, 684-685) P J Kosmin. 2013. Alexander the Great and the Seleucids in Iran. In, Potts, D. T (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.671-689. §REF§ . Most written documents are in Greek and contain valuable information about the empire, the battles fought and the kings who ruled. The documents are however far from complete and many aspects of the empire are either inferred from other sources or remain unknown. Overall it can be surmised that the Seleucid Empire was ruled by one king at a time who held central authority, but who exerted that authority through his commanders, or satraps, in the various territories of the empire §REF§ (Kosmin 2013, 680) P J Kosmin. 2013. Alexander the Great and the Seleucids in Iran. In, Potts, D. T (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.671-689. §REF§ . This both gave the king a great amount of power but also made him vulnerable to the ambitions of his satraps, the most notable example being the betrayal of the general Achaios who in 220 BCE took the territories of Asia Minor for himself after conducting campaigns there on behalf of Antiochus III §REF§ (Ager 2012, 421) S L Ager. 2012. The Alleged Rapprochement between Achaios and Attalos I in 220 BCE. Historia. 61 (4), pp. 421-429. §REF§ .", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-09-19T12:39:45.294864Z", "home_nga": { "id": 8, "name": "Southern Mesopotamia", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "44.420000000000", "latitude": "32.470000000000", "capital_city": "Babylon (Hillah)", "nga_code": "IQ", "fao_country": "Iraq", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 170, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " The Sultans owed allegiance to the caliph, \"“a new stratification of power emerged, in which legitimacy and prestige belonged to the Abbasid caliph, but political power belonged to sultans or other synonymously titled rulers who acquired power by conquest and claimed legitimacy from him.” §REF§Findley, Carter V., The Turks in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), p.69.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "nominal allegiance", "polity": { "id": 364, "name": "IrSeljq", "start_year": 1037, "end_year": 1157, "long_name": "Seljuk Sultanate", "new_name": "ir_seljuk_sultanate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Seljuks were a Turkic dynasty from east of the Aral Sea §REF§ (Bosworth 2001) C. E. Bosworth, 'Turks, Seljuk and Ottoman' in The Oxford Companion to Military History eds. Richard Holmes, Charles Singleton, and Dr Spencer Jones (2001) (al-Rahim 2010) Ahmed H. al-Rahim, 'Seljuk Turks' in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages ed. Robert E. Bjork (2010) §REF§ who ruled a relatively decentralized empire across Central Asia, Persia and Mesopotamia - with perhaps the exception of the powerful viziership of Nizam al-Mulk. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 48) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ .<br>The Seljuk Empire (1037-1157 CE) did not have a single political center as it was divided into western and eastern halves §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 6) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ ; the east had \"connotations of seniority in Turkic culture\" §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 41) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ and Nizam al-Mulk himself started his career in the Seljuk bureaucracy in Balkh. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 48) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ The western territories were known as the Sultanate of Iraq §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 7) A C S Peacock. 2015. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ and altogether there may have been 12 million under Seljuk rule in 1100 CE.<br>Nizam al-Mulk \"strove to suppress abuses, to introduce reforms, to initiate his still uncultured Saljuk masters into the arts of Perso-Islamic statecraft, and to provide competent and reliable theologians, judges, and secretaries for the state religion and administration.\" §REF§ (Bagley 1964, xxviii-xxix) F R C Bagley. trans. Huma'i, Jalal and Isaacs, H. D. eds. 1964. Ghazali's Book of Counsel for Kings (Nasihat Al-Muluk). Oxford University Press. London. §REF§ \"Nizam al-Mulk was particularly concerned with the construction and maintenance of trade routes, caravanserais, and bridges; the appointment of trustworthy market inspectors and tax collectors; and the appointment of spies throughout the realm - policies crucial to rooting out corruption and fostering confidence in local and long-distance trade.\" §REF§ (Lindsay 2005, 20) James E Lindsay. 2005. Daily Life in The Medieval Islamic World. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. Indianapolis. §REF§ <br>Within the Seljuk system of rule the caliph was the ultimate religious authority §REF§ (al-Rahim 2012) Ahmed H. al-Rahim, 'Seljuk Turks' in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages ed. Robert E. Bjork (2010) §REF§ §REF§ (al-Rahim 2012) Ahmed H. al-Rahim, 'Seljuk Turks' in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages ed. Robert E. Bjork (2010) §REF§ and the sultan was the head of secular power §REF§ Findley, Carter V., The Turks in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), P.69. §REF§ supported by a vizier of the diwan-i a'la. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 333) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ Seljuk maliks (princes) ruled provinces with an atabeg (supervisor) and a small court bureaucracy overseen by a vizier. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 194-195) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ <br>As an independent state the Seljuk Empire came to an end when it was defeated by the Mongols and the Sultan had to pay them tribute.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-10-30T18:00:53.813428Z", "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 174, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " unknown/ none/ alliance/ nominal allegiance/ personal union/ vassalage Icelanders maintained vital commercial connections with Europeans and Scandinavians: 'The early Icelanders maintained commercial contacts with Europe and obtained goods from Scandinavia, England, the Norse Orkneys, and the Netherlands. The majority of trade, however, was with Norway, both for Norwegian goods and for foreign goods obtained by Norwegian merchants. The limited resources, especially in terms of raw materials for manufactured goods, made Iceland highly dependent on imported goods. Even before the decline and cessation of grain production in Iceland it is unlikely that Iceland ever produced enough cereals to meet its own needs. Of special significance in a feasting economy, grain and malt were essential to ale production. After Christianization imported wine also become essential for the celebration of communion. Many higher quality iron products, for example weapons and armor, could not be produced from local sources and were imported, mostly in finished forms. Other metals - brass, tin, lead, gold, silver, and bronze - were unavailable locally as well as steatite for utensils and stone suitable for making whetstones. Iceland had a limited number of exportable resources and goods. Homespun woolen cloth was the principal export and was a common standard of value in local exchanges. Sulfur, unavailable from any continental source, was a valuable commodity. Falcons and various animal skins - sheep, fox, and cat - were marketable as were cheese and possibly butter. Fish, the current mainstay of the Icelandic economy was not a significant export item in early Iceland.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§ The Commonwealth as such maintained no permanent external alliances, although the Norwegian crown had its allies among the chieftains: 'Isolated in the North Atlantic, Iceland had few external conflicts. Individual Icelanders were occasionally involved in conflict when outside the country and also sometimes served in foreign militaries. During the late tenth century, the Norwegian king was a champion of the Christian movement in Iceland and often attempted to assert his influence, although this was largely limited to Icelanders in Norway. Likewise, the ultimately successful attempts to incorporate Iceland under the Norwegian monarchy were mostly played out through alliances with individual Icelanders.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 115, "name": "IsCommw", "start_year": 930, "end_year": 1262, "long_name": "Icelandic Commonwealth", "new_name": "is_icelandic_commonwealth", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Settlers arrived in Iceland in significant numbers starting from the late 9th century CE, mostly from Norway and the Norse colonies in Scotland and Ireland, bringing with them many people indigenous to the latter. However, language and culture were strongly Norse.<br>The Icelandic Commonwealth (Icel. <i>íslenska þjóðveldið</i>), occasionally called 'free state' or 'republic' (not to be confused with the modern republic) was established in 930 CE according to 12th-century historical documents. It was the first polity to cover the whole of Iceland and the smaller surrounding islands. Its territory did not change during its lifetime.<br>Icelandic society during the Commonwealth was strongly rural and never developed significant urbanization. However, centres of power, wealth and learning gradually emerged in the two bishoprics, monasteries and the homes of the greatest secular lords.<br>Iceland was mostly pagan in the early period but Christianity was accepted in 1000 and the first bishopric established in 1056. This not only brought Iceland closer to Europe but also introduced European culture and learning, and from the early 12th century the Icelanders started to produce significant works of literature in the vernacular but written in the Latin alphabet (sagas). The sagas are usually (at least recently) considered the greatest achievement of the Commonwealth and they flourished in the 13th century (both before and after 1262). However, this was also a time of war and loss of independence, making it difficult to assign it a 'peak' status.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>There are no reliable figures for the total population in Iceland during this period. Common estimates range from 5,000-20,000 in 930 to 40,000-70,000 at the end. The only statistic that is somewhat reliable states that the number of tax-paying farmers around 1100 AD was 4,560. The relationship between this number and the whole population is uncertain.<br>The Commonwealth functioned as a federation of smaller political units with no fixed borders, the godords/chieftaincies (<i>goðorð</i>), with alliances between households led by a chieftain (<i>goði</i> or <i>goðorðsmaður</i>). Laws were common to all and there was a common judiciary system. In Lögrétta leaders of all the godords met once a year to decide on laws, forming the most important part of the proceedings of the <i>Alþingi</i> ('general assembly'), held in summer at Thingvellir. However, there was no common executive branch of government, leaving the godords quite autonomous.<br>The godords started to congeal into territorial lordships with fixed borders in the 12th century (the first one perhaps in the late 11th century), but this process was most rapid around 1200 CE and by 1220 they covered most of Iceland. These lordships functioned as practically independent tiny polities (or 'proto-states') and proceeded to fight each other for supremacy. The ensuing civil wars (<i>Sturlungaöld</i>) ended in 1262 when the Icelanders swore allegiance to the Norwegian crown.<br><i>This description was provided by Axel Kristinsson and edited by Jenny Reddish.</i>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 3, "name": "Iceland", "subregion": "Northern Europe", "longitude": "-21.891497000000", "latitude": "64.133088000000", "capital_city": "Reykjavik", "nga_code": "IS", "fao_country": "Iceland", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 17, "name": "Northern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 175, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Nominal allegiance to the Emperor in Constantinople<br>\"Thus then it came to pass that a formal interview was arranged between Emperor and King (perhaps at Constantinople, though it seems doubtful whether Theodoric could have safely trusted himself within its walls), and at this interview the terms of the joint enterprise were arranged, an enterprise to which Theodoric was to contribute all the effective strength and Zeno the glamour of Imperial legitimacy... If the Emperor would send Theodoric thither with his people, he would be at once relieved from the heavy charges of their stipendia which he was now bound to furnish, while Theodoric would hold the land as of the free gift of the Emperor, and would reign there as king, only till Zeno himself should arrive to claim the supremacy.\"§REF§(Hodgkin 1897)§REF§<br>Alliances with the Visigoths and others:<br>\"In the year 490 Gundobad, king of the Burgundians, crossed the Alps and descended into Italy to mingle in the fray as an antagonist of Theodoric. In the same year, probably at the same time, Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, entered Italy as his ally. A great battle was fought on the river Adda, ten miles east of Milan, in which Odovacar, who had emerged from the shelter of Ravenna, was again completely defeated. He fled once more to Ravenna, which he never again quitted.\"§REF§(Hodgkin 1897)§REF§<br>According to the Bishop of Ravenna, Theodoric: \"He gave one of his daughters in marriage to the King of the Visigoths in Gaul, another to the son of the Burgundian King; his sister to the King of the Vandals, and his niece to the King of the Thuringians. Thus he pleased all the nations round him...\"§REF§(Hodgkin 1897)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "nominal allegiance", "polity": { "id": 186, "name": "ItOstrg", "start_year": 489, "end_year": 554, "long_name": "Ostrogothic Kingdom", "new_name": "it_ostrogoth_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Beginning with the Emperor Honorius (r. 393-423 CE), the Western Empire experienced a continuous decline and a series of invasions at the hands of Germanic, Vandal, Alan, and Hun forces throughout the 5th century. In 476 CE, a Roman military officer of likely Germanic decent (though his exact ancestry is not certain) named Odoacer led a revolt against the western emperor Romulus Augustus (r. 475-476 CE), a child whose rule was overseen by his father, a high-ranking general named Orestes. Odoacer and his fellow soldiers killed Orestes and effectively deposed Romulus Augustus, and Odoacer's authority was recognized by the Eastern Roman emperor at the time, Zeno, although he was not proclaimed Emperor in the West. In 480 CE, after the death of Julius Nepos, whom Zeno recognized as the legitimate Western Emperor, Zeno abolished the co-emperorship, claiming to rule over both halves of the Empire, although much of the Western Empire had already been lost and Italy itself remained under the control of Odoacer, who ruled as king. §REF§ (Cameron 1993) Averil Cameron. 1993. <i>The Later Roman Empire, A.D. 284-430</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Burns 1991, 74) Thomas S. Burns. 1991. <i>A History of the Ostrogoths</i>. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. §REF§ <br>In 488 CE, the Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno convinced Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths (r. 475-526), to invade Italy and remove Odoacer from power. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 21) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Theodoric and his Ostrogoths were successful, expelling Odoacer from Italy and establishing an Ostrogothic Kingdom over most of Italy, which lasted from 489 to 554 CE. Theodoric's agreement with Zeno, which may have been written down but no longer exists, §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 20) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ led Theodoric's rule to be officially recognized by the Eastern Empire in Constantinople. §REF§ (Stearns, ed. 2001, 169) Peter N. Stearns, ed. 2001. <i>The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern</i>. 6th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. §REF§ <br>The period ends with Ostrogothic Italy's defeat at the hands of the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I in 455 CE. Justinian managed to reassert Roman rule and institutions over much of Italy, though this quickly evaporated in the face of invasions by Salvic, Turkic, and Germanic tribes. Only central and some parts of southern Italy remained under Byzantine authority into the later half of the 5th century CE. §REF§ (Burns 1991, 215) Thomas S. Burns. 1991. <i>A History of the Ostrogoths</i>. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Ostrogothic Kingdom was essentially split between three separate power centres: Constantinople, Ravenna and Rome. The Ostrogothic king, traditionally elected by a Gothic military elite, §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 21) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ but made hereditary after Theodoric, made high-level administrative appointments to a court based in Ravenna and to the northern Italian cities of Pavia and Verona. §REF§ (Barnish 2007, 327) Sam J. Barnish. 2007.<i> 'Cuncta Italiae Membra Componere</i>: Political Relations in Ostrogothic Italy', in <i>The Ostrogoths from the Migration Period to the Sixth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective</i>, edited by Sam J. Barnish and Federico Marazzi, 317-37. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§ The Ostrogothic King was, however, in principle under the authority of the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire in Constantinople, on whose invitation Theodoric had invaded Odoacer's Italy. The emperors in Constantinople retained the right to name senators, consuls, and other high-ranking officials for the West, §REF§ (Wolfram and Dunlap 1990, 287-88) H. Wolfram and T. J. Dunlap. 1990. <i>History of the Goths</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ while Rome remained an influential symbolic, economic, and ecclesiastical centre. §REF§ (Barnish 2007, 327) Sam J. Barnish. 2007.<i> 'Cuncta Italiae Membra Componere</i>: Political Relations in Ostrogothic Italy', in <i>The Ostrogoths from the Migration Period to the Sixth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective</i>, edited by Sam J. Barnish and Federico Marazzi, 317-37. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§ The Roman Senate at Rome functioned as a local governing centre; §REF§ (Arnold, Bjornlie and Sessa 2016, 8) Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa. 2016. 'Introduction', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 1-13. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ many wealthy Romans found traditional positions of authority and prestige in the administration at Ravenna. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 25) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ §REF§ (Arnold, Bjornlie and Sessa 2016, 8) Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa. 2016. 'Introduction', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 1-13. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Ostrogothic kings kept the existing late Roman governmental structure relatively unchanged, §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 59) Shane M Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration.' in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i> edited by Jonathan J Arnold, Shane M Bjornlie, Kristina Sessa. Leiden: BRILL. §REF§ but reduced in size §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 53) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ and more tightly centred on the royal court. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 26) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>The king's administrative and advisory council was made up of both Gothic and Roman officials. §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 58) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ §REF§ (Barnish 2007, 322) Sam J. Barnish. 2007.<i> 'Cuncta Italiae Membra Componere</i>: Political Relations in Ostrogothic Italy', in <i>The Ostrogoths from the Migration Period to the Sixth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective</i>, edited by Sam J. Barnish and Federico Marazzi, 317-37. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§ This period also saw a 'blurring of the boundaries between civil and military functions'. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 26) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The praetorian prefect was the most powerful individual in the kingdom below the king; he was responsible for enforcing the king's laws, had some power to issue his own edicts and set taxation rates, received the taxes from all provinces, paid military and administrative salaries, made personnel recommendations to the king and had the right of dismissal. §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 61) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ He also commanded the largest branches of the bureaucracy, was responsible for the public food supply, and was the final judge of appeal. §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 61) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>The Ostrogothic Kingdom reached a population of approximately 5.5 million people and witnessed a revival in economic fortunes for the region of Italy. Apart from the many Roman institutions, the Roman aristocracy and their privileges that were maintained, tax receipts were spent on public services §REF§ (Wolfram and Dunlap 1990, 296) H. Wolfram and T. J. Dunlap. 1990. <i>History of the Goths</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ and Theodoric commanded that money be set aside for the restoration of walls and monuments in several Roman cities. §REF§ (Purton 2009, 14) Peter Purton. 2009. <i>A History of the Early Medieval Siege, c. 450-1220</i>. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§ Theodoric also oversaw the construction of baths and an amphitheatre, and restored aqueducts from Ravenna to Rome - the latter had seen its population fall to around 100,000-200,000 inhabitants - and built churches such as the Arian Saint Theodor, the palatial San Apollinare Nuovo, and the San Andrea dei Gothi. §REF§ (Burns 1991, 129) Thomas S. Burns. 1991. <i>A History of the Ostrogoths</i>. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 1, "name": "Latium", "subregion": "Southern Europe", "longitude": "12.486948000000", "latitude": "41.890407000000", "capital_city": "Rome", "nga_code": "IT", "fao_country": "Italy", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 176, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Nominal allegiance to the Emperor in Constantinople<br>\"Thus then it came to pass that a formal interview was arranged between Emperor and King (perhaps at Constantinople, though it seems doubtful whether Theodoric could have safely trusted himself within its walls), and at this interview the terms of the joint enterprise were arranged, an enterprise to which Theodoric was to contribute all the effective strength and Zeno the glamour of Imperial legitimacy... If the Emperor would send Theodoric thither with his people, he would be at once relieved from the heavy charges of their stipendia which he was now bound to furnish, while Theodoric would hold the land as of the free gift of the Emperor, and would reign there as king, only till Zeno himself should arrive to claim the supremacy.\"§REF§(Hodgkin 1897)§REF§<br>Alliances with the Visigoths and others:<br>\"In the year 490 Gundobad, king of the Burgundians, crossed the Alps and descended into Italy to mingle in the fray as an antagonist of Theodoric. In the same year, probably at the same time, Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, entered Italy as his ally. A great battle was fought on the river Adda, ten miles east of Milan, in which Odovacar, who had emerged from the shelter of Ravenna, was again completely defeated. He fled once more to Ravenna, which he never again quitted.\"§REF§(Hodgkin 1897)§REF§<br>According to the Bishop of Ravenna, Theodoric: \"He gave one of his daughters in marriage to the King of the Visigoths in Gaul, another to the son of the Burgundian King; his sister to the King of the Vandals, and his niece to the King of the Thuringians. Thus he pleased all the nations round him...\"§REF§(Hodgkin 1897)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "polity": { "id": 186, "name": "ItOstrg", "start_year": 489, "end_year": 554, "long_name": "Ostrogothic Kingdom", "new_name": "it_ostrogoth_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Beginning with the Emperor Honorius (r. 393-423 CE), the Western Empire experienced a continuous decline and a series of invasions at the hands of Germanic, Vandal, Alan, and Hun forces throughout the 5th century. In 476 CE, a Roman military officer of likely Germanic decent (though his exact ancestry is not certain) named Odoacer led a revolt against the western emperor Romulus Augustus (r. 475-476 CE), a child whose rule was overseen by his father, a high-ranking general named Orestes. Odoacer and his fellow soldiers killed Orestes and effectively deposed Romulus Augustus, and Odoacer's authority was recognized by the Eastern Roman emperor at the time, Zeno, although he was not proclaimed Emperor in the West. In 480 CE, after the death of Julius Nepos, whom Zeno recognized as the legitimate Western Emperor, Zeno abolished the co-emperorship, claiming to rule over both halves of the Empire, although much of the Western Empire had already been lost and Italy itself remained under the control of Odoacer, who ruled as king. §REF§ (Cameron 1993) Averil Cameron. 1993. <i>The Later Roman Empire, A.D. 284-430</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Burns 1991, 74) Thomas S. Burns. 1991. <i>A History of the Ostrogoths</i>. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. §REF§ <br>In 488 CE, the Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno convinced Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths (r. 475-526), to invade Italy and remove Odoacer from power. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 21) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Theodoric and his Ostrogoths were successful, expelling Odoacer from Italy and establishing an Ostrogothic Kingdom over most of Italy, which lasted from 489 to 554 CE. Theodoric's agreement with Zeno, which may have been written down but no longer exists, §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 20) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ led Theodoric's rule to be officially recognized by the Eastern Empire in Constantinople. §REF§ (Stearns, ed. 2001, 169) Peter N. Stearns, ed. 2001. <i>The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern</i>. 6th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. §REF§ <br>The period ends with Ostrogothic Italy's defeat at the hands of the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I in 455 CE. Justinian managed to reassert Roman rule and institutions over much of Italy, though this quickly evaporated in the face of invasions by Salvic, Turkic, and Germanic tribes. Only central and some parts of southern Italy remained under Byzantine authority into the later half of the 5th century CE. §REF§ (Burns 1991, 215) Thomas S. Burns. 1991. <i>A History of the Ostrogoths</i>. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Ostrogothic Kingdom was essentially split between three separate power centres: Constantinople, Ravenna and Rome. The Ostrogothic king, traditionally elected by a Gothic military elite, §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 21) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ but made hereditary after Theodoric, made high-level administrative appointments to a court based in Ravenna and to the northern Italian cities of Pavia and Verona. §REF§ (Barnish 2007, 327) Sam J. Barnish. 2007.<i> 'Cuncta Italiae Membra Componere</i>: Political Relations in Ostrogothic Italy', in <i>The Ostrogoths from the Migration Period to the Sixth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective</i>, edited by Sam J. Barnish and Federico Marazzi, 317-37. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§ The Ostrogothic King was, however, in principle under the authority of the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire in Constantinople, on whose invitation Theodoric had invaded Odoacer's Italy. The emperors in Constantinople retained the right to name senators, consuls, and other high-ranking officials for the West, §REF§ (Wolfram and Dunlap 1990, 287-88) H. Wolfram and T. J. Dunlap. 1990. <i>History of the Goths</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ while Rome remained an influential symbolic, economic, and ecclesiastical centre. §REF§ (Barnish 2007, 327) Sam J. Barnish. 2007.<i> 'Cuncta Italiae Membra Componere</i>: Political Relations in Ostrogothic Italy', in <i>The Ostrogoths from the Migration Period to the Sixth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective</i>, edited by Sam J. Barnish and Federico Marazzi, 317-37. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§ The Roman Senate at Rome functioned as a local governing centre; §REF§ (Arnold, Bjornlie and Sessa 2016, 8) Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa. 2016. 'Introduction', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 1-13. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ many wealthy Romans found traditional positions of authority and prestige in the administration at Ravenna. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 25) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ §REF§ (Arnold, Bjornlie and Sessa 2016, 8) Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa. 2016. 'Introduction', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 1-13. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Ostrogothic kings kept the existing late Roman governmental structure relatively unchanged, §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 59) Shane M Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration.' in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i> edited by Jonathan J Arnold, Shane M Bjornlie, Kristina Sessa. Leiden: BRILL. §REF§ but reduced in size §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 53) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ and more tightly centred on the royal court. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 26) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>The king's administrative and advisory council was made up of both Gothic and Roman officials. §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 58) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ §REF§ (Barnish 2007, 322) Sam J. Barnish. 2007.<i> 'Cuncta Italiae Membra Componere</i>: Political Relations in Ostrogothic Italy', in <i>The Ostrogoths from the Migration Period to the Sixth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective</i>, edited by Sam J. Barnish and Federico Marazzi, 317-37. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§ This period also saw a 'blurring of the boundaries between civil and military functions'. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 26) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The praetorian prefect was the most powerful individual in the kingdom below the king; he was responsible for enforcing the king's laws, had some power to issue his own edicts and set taxation rates, received the taxes from all provinces, paid military and administrative salaries, made personnel recommendations to the king and had the right of dismissal. §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 61) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ He also commanded the largest branches of the bureaucracy, was responsible for the public food supply, and was the final judge of appeal. §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 61) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>The Ostrogothic Kingdom reached a population of approximately 5.5 million people and witnessed a revival in economic fortunes for the region of Italy. Apart from the many Roman institutions, the Roman aristocracy and their privileges that were maintained, tax receipts were spent on public services §REF§ (Wolfram and Dunlap 1990, 296) H. Wolfram and T. J. Dunlap. 1990. <i>History of the Goths</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ and Theodoric commanded that money be set aside for the restoration of walls and monuments in several Roman cities. §REF§ (Purton 2009, 14) Peter Purton. 2009. <i>A History of the Early Medieval Siege, c. 450-1220</i>. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§ Theodoric also oversaw the construction of baths and an amphitheatre, and restored aqueducts from Ravenna to Rome - the latter had seen its population fall to around 100,000-200,000 inhabitants - and built churches such as the Arian Saint Theodor, the palatial San Apollinare Nuovo, and the San Andrea dei Gothi. §REF§ (Burns 1991, 129) Thomas S. Burns. 1991. <i>A History of the Ostrogoths</i>. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 1, "name": "Latium", "subregion": "Southern Europe", "longitude": "12.486948000000", "latitude": "41.890407000000", "capital_city": "Rome", "nga_code": "IT", "fao_country": "Italy", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 177, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Papal relations with other polities fluctuated dramatically during this period; I coded it as \"vassalage\" to reflect the fact that the papacy during this period was often dominated by the German emperors.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "vassalage", "polity": { "id": 189, "name": "ItPapEM", "start_year": 904, "end_year": 1198, "long_name": "Rome - Republic of St Peter II", "new_name": "it_st_peter_rep_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The term \"Papal States\" was not adopted until around 1200 CE §REF§ (Vauchez 2010, 356) André Vauchez ed. <i>Roma Medievale.</i> Rome: Editori Laterza, 2010 [2001]. §REF§ ; at this time the polity of the Papacy at Rome was called the Patrimony of St. Peter, Republic of St. Peter or Land of St. Peter. The population of Rome languished at a relative historical low of 35,000 people throughout this period, which was marked by a high degree of fragmentation and sub-regional autonomy. Various areas of the Patrimony of St. Peter were virtually independent of the Papacy or subject to central authority only in a very nominal way. §REF§ (Wickham 2009, 164) Chris Wickham. <i>Early Medieval Italy. Central Power and Local Society, 400-1000.</i> Ann Arbor, MA: University of Michigan, 2009 [1981]. §REF§ <br>Through the 904-1198 CE period the polity, with its capital at Rome, was dominated by powerful families and a powerful foreign state. The Theophylacti, a noble family from Tusculanum, were the first of a number of aristocratic families who dominated the papacy. §REF§ (Marazzi 2001, 64) Federico Marazzi. \"Aristocrazia e società (secoli VI-XI),\" in Vauchez, ed., 41-69. §REF§ In the late eleventh and twelfth centuries, the papacy was frequently at war with the German emperors, which caused serious destabilization of political authority in the Patrimony. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 231) Peter Partner. 1972. <i>The Lands of St. Peter: The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance.</i> Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972. §REF§ The German Emperor Henry III, became the <i>de facto</i> guardian of the papacy and the Patrimony. §REF§ (Kreutz 1996, 151) Kreutz, Barbara M. <i>Before the Normans. Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries.</i> College Park, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996. §REF§ <br>When Henry III granted the city of Benevento to Pope Leo IX this marked the furthest extent of (nominal) papal power until Pope Innocent III (r. 1198-1216 CE) began consolidating what would be called the Papal States. §REF§ (Kreutz 1996, 152) Kreutz, Barbara M. <i>Before the Normans. Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries.</i> College Park, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996. §REF§ It could be argued that the peak of the polity was under the Tusculan Reform Papacy c.1012-1036 CE because of internal and external stability and socioeconomic and (even if limited) demographic expansion.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 1, "name": "Latium", "subregion": "Southern Europe", "longitude": "12.486948000000", "latitude": "41.890407000000", "capital_city": "Rome", "nga_code": "IT", "fao_country": "Italy", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 160, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "alliance \"Babylonia and Elam against Assyria\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 389) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ -- which period?", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "uncoded", "polity": { "id": 501, "name": "IrMElm3", "start_year": -1199, "end_year": -1100, "long_name": "Elam - Shutrukid Period", "new_name": "ir_elam_7", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Middle Elamite kingdom, about 250,000 square kilometers, was located in what is now Southwestern Iran. §REF§ (Liverani, 2014. 279) Liverani, Mario. The ancient Near East: history, society and economy. London: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, 2014 §REF§ The kingdom is commonly split into three phases: the first before 1400 BCE; the second, 1400-1200 BCE, which was characterised by intermarriage with the Kassites; and the third, 1200-1100 BCE, characterised by war with the Kassites.<br>The First Period lacks the evidence of the later periods, but can be seen to be a substantial state, where the kings held the title of king of Anshan and Susa, even if it is not clear how much control they exerted over Anshan. The kings of the First Period had local governors and diplomats, craft and cult organisation, and could wage war against the Babylonians. §REF§ Carter, E. and Stolper, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p. 32-34 §REF§ <br>The Second Period has a comparative wealth of evidence, mostly royal inscriptions from building or dedicatory texts. During this period, the empire expanded and many building works were undertaken, including the construction of the new city al-Untash Napirisha. This period also saw the Elamites becoming increasingly involved in Mesopotamian politics. There were many marriages between Elamite princes (the Igihalkids) and Kassite princesses. §REF§ Carter, E. and Stolper, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. Near Eastern Studies. Volume 25. Berkeley: University of California Press. p.37-38 §REF§ The \"Berlin letter\", an important text, names four marriages between Elamite princes and Kassite princesses. §REF§ Potts, D.T. 2012. The Elamites. In Daryaee, T. (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 37 §REF§ <br>The Third Period involved military battles with Babylon, which had been annexed by Assyria. in 1158 BCE, the Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte invaded Babylonia and overthrew the Kassite king Zababa-shuma-iddina, probably giving the throne to his son Kutir-Nahhunte. The Middle Elamite Kingdom ended when the Babylonian army, led by Nebuchadnezzar, defeated the last Middle Elamite king, Hutelutush-Inshushinak and seized Susa in revenge for taking their god and invading their kingdom. §REF§ Potts, D.T. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.232-253 §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Kings of this period were commonly referred to by the title 'king of Susa and Anshan' in Akkadian and 'king of Anshan and Susa' in Elamite. It is a period characterised by this unity between the highlands, Anshan, and the lowlands, Susa. §REF§ Potts, D. T. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.188 §REF§ A powerful bureaucracy had religious and secular influence in the government. §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ <br>The population for the entire empire is unknown, but the largest settlement is estimated at between 1,500-6,000 people during the early period, 2,750-11,000 people in 1300 BCE, and 5,000-20,000 in 1200 BCE.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 178, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Armies of the Papal States were a conglomeration of international allies, friendly towns and nobles, volunteer crusaders, and the forces directly raised by the pope. §REF§(Waley 1957)§REF§<br><i>JFR: The papal alliance with the French began well before the fourteenth century, with the onset of Angevin hegemony in the peninsula following the 1266 victory of Benevento.</i>§REF§Waley [1961], 176§REF§<br><i>RC: The papal state made many alliances with polities during this period, held the nominal allegiance of some polities (the Norman duchies to the south are just one good example of both of these), and held vassals of its own (who were notoriously difficult to control by this period). War with the HRE was simply one of many parts of the Papal State's supra-polity relations.</i><br><i>JFR: I coded this as \"alliance\" to reflect the enduring French-papal alliance, which characterized much of the mid-13th and fourteenth centuries; the brackets reflect the uneasy nature of this alliance, culminating in the papacy of Boniface VIII and the ensuing Babylonian Captivity</i>", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "polity": { "id": 190, "name": "ItPapHM", "start_year": 1198, "end_year": 1309, "long_name": "Papal States - High Medieval Period", "new_name": "it_papal_state_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "In the 1198-1309 CE period the Papacy, from Innocent III, extended its power over the temporal realm, and over Christendom. The period ends with the Angevin exile from 1309 CE.<br>The term Christendom (Christianitas) reflects the supranational scope of the Papacy, which being also an international religion, had a degree of control beyond the territorial borders of the Papal State. §REF§ (Madigan 2015) K Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. Yale University Press. New Haven. §REF§ Whilst in previous times Rome was dominated by France and then German monarchs, under the rule of Pope Innocent III (r. 1198-1216 CE), 'the king maker of Christendom', papal authority, particularly in influence around Europe, was at its medieval height. He initiated several crusades and presided over the Fourth Lateran Council §REF§ (Vauchez 2010, 356) André Vauchez ed. <i>Roma Medievale.</i> Rome: Editori Laterza, 2010 [2001]. §REF§ that defined an important Catholic ritual, the Eucharist.<br>Innocent III \"viewed himself explicitly as the vicar of Christ, priest and king, who possessed unrivaled temporal and religious authority\" §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 291) K Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. Yale University Press. New Haven. §REF§ and this combined with a \"general acceptance that the pope was the vicar of Christ and the growing sense of Christians, nourished by the reforms of the eleventh century, that they were part of a supranational entity, Christendom (Christianitas), and that their primary loyalty was to that body and to the pope as head of Christendom, rather than to any local, regional, or even national entity.\" §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 291) K Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. Yale University Press. New Haven. §REF§ <br>Armies of the Papal States were a conglomeration of international allies, friendly towns and nobles, volunteer crusaders, and the forces directly raised by the pope. §REF§ (Waley 1957, 1-30) D P Waley. January 1957. Papal Armies of the Thirteen Century, Vol. 72, No. 282, The English Historical Review. pp. 1-30 §REF§ The papal state formed many alliances with during this period, held the nominal allegiance of some polities (the Norman duchies to the south are just one good example of both of these), and held vassals of its own (albeit ones that were notoriously difficult to control). War with the Holy Roman Empire characterised the Papal State's international relations.<br>Based at the Lateran Palace in Rome, the Papal bureaucracy consisted of scribes, archivists, tax collectors, papal messengers, and administrators charged with the upkeep of the city §REF§ Carocci and Vendittelli, 74-75 §REF§ which at this time was no greater than the size of a large town, with about 35,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Brentano 1991, 13) Robert Brentano. 1991. <i>Rome Before Avignon: A Social History of Thirteenth-Century Rome.</i> Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 1, "name": "Latium", "subregion": "Southern Europe", "longitude": "12.486948000000", "latitude": "41.890407000000", "capital_city": "Rome", "nga_code": "IT", "fao_country": "Italy", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 179, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " The Papacy was a key member of the Holy League, a coalition of Christian powers funded in part by the Spanish monarchy and directed against the Ottoman Turks, during this period (the active life of the League was roughly 1570-73§REF§See Braudel, 1125-42, for the end of the League)§REF§. The code should be bracketed reflect that at the beginning of the period through 1559, the papacy was at times at war with the Spanish, and because the Holy League had largely ceased functioning by around 1580. Generally speaking, the period after 1559 was marked by Spanish hegemony throughout Italy, the <i>pax hispanica.</i>§REF§Dandelet in Marino§REF§ Dandelet and Symcox characterized the papacy during this period as, generally, beholden to the Spanish, along with the other principalities of the Peninsula, such as Tuscany and Ferrara; this arrangement was only challenged beginning in the 1610s, by the Kingdom of Savoy.§REF§See Symcox in Marino, 165, for the Savoyard challenge to the <i>pax hispanica</i>§REF§ Furthermore, the papacy and the city of Rome in particular benefited tremendously from Spanish financial assistance and cultural patronage.§REF§Dandelet in Findlen, et. al., 221§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "polity": { "id": 192, "name": "ItPapM1", "start_year": 1527, "end_year": 1648, "long_name": "Papal States - Medieval Period I", "new_name": "it_papal_state_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The polity period begins with the imperial sack of Rome (1527). This devastating sack at the hands of largely Protestant mercenaries-theoretically in the service of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V-marks an absolute nadir of papal fortunes for the early modern period. The sack provoked the papacy to reform itself, take the Protestant revolt seriously, and initiate the Counter-Reformation (aka the Catholic Reformation). §REF§ (Martin 2002, 39-42) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ The age of the Council of Trent (1543-1563) dramatically altered the Catholic Church, enhancing the papacy's power within the Church and enhancing its ability to police the laity, with institutions such as the Roman Inquisition being established in 1542 by Paul III. §REF§ (Martin 2002, 42) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ The index of banned books was established, tighter clerical control over canonization imposed, and in general the Catholic Church ratcheted down on orthodoxy in the face of the Protestant threat. §REF§ (Schutte 2002, 126-127) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ <br>The sack of Rome was compounded by malaria epidemics and food shortages, to drastically reduce the population of Rome to perhaps 10,000 in 1527-28. §REF§ (Black 2001, 9) Christopher F Black. 2001. <i>Early modern Italy. A social history.</i> London: Routledge. §REF§ Despite this, the city soon recovered and boomed in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as the capital of a more or less stable Papal State, under Spanish protection. By the turn of the century, Rome's population may have been around 100,000. §REF§ (Goldthwaite 2009, 173) Richard A Goldthwaite. 2009. <i>The economy of renaissance Florence.</i> Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 2009. §REF§ Marino has characterized the early modern city's economy as parasitic, consuming and not producing wealth §REF§ (Marino 2002, 66) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ ; Goldthwaite, similarly, describes late medieval and early modern Rome thus: \"Rome, however, was a city that consumed but did not produce; in contrast to Avignon, it was not a regional export market of any importance.\" §REF§ (Goldthwaite 2009, 173) Richard A Goldthwaite. 2009. <i>The economy of renaissance Florence.</i> Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 2009. §REF§ A major part of this consumption was cultural: \"Rome...exploded [in the sixteenth century] into an enormous market for luxury goods....\" §REF§ (Goldthwaite 2009, 173) Richard A Goldthwaite. 2009. <i>The economy of renaissance Florence.</i> Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 2009. §REF§ Despite the sack, the most important papal building project of the early modern period, St. Peter's Basilica, was completed in 1626. Spanish financial and military support was crucial to the survival of the Papal State; a famous letter of Charles V, written to his son Philip II between 1545 and 1558, declared that \"'the states of the church are in the center of Italy, but [they are] surrounded by ours in such a way that one can say that they form one kingdom.'\" §REF§ (Dandelet 2003, 221) Thomas Dandelet. 2003. \"The Spanish Foundations of Late Renaissance and Baroque Rome.\" In <i>Beyond Florence. The Contours of Medieval and Early Modern Italy.</i>Paula Findlen, Michelle M. Fontaine, and Duane J. Osheim eds. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP. pp. 219-232 §REF§ <i>De facto</i> Spanish hegemony over the Papal State would not be seriously challenged between the mid-16th century and the pontificate of Urban VIII (1623-44). §REF§ (Dandelet 2003, 221) Thomas Dandelet. 2003. \"The Spanish Foundations of Late Renaissance and Baroque Rome.\" In <i>Beyond Florence. The Contours of Medieval and Early Modern Italy.</i>Paula Findlen, Michelle M. Fontaine, and Duane J. Osheim eds. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP. pp. 219-232 §REF§ <br>By the sixteenth century, the papacy was firmly in control of the Papal State, and the polity was at peace after the end of the Great Italian Wars (1559). The Spanish alliance remained a cornerstone of papal policy into the early 18th century. §REF§ (Dandelet 2002, 29) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ The papacy ruled Rome and the State through a sophisticated bureaucracy based on patronage, cronyism, and the purchase of offices. §REF§ (Dandelet 2002, 20) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 696-698) Fernand Braudel. 1973. <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.</i> Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ The feudal barons and nobles were subject to clerical officials appointed by the Papacy. §REF§ (Symcox 2002, 114) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ Although this bureaucracy was usually able to meet the basic requirements of government-collecting taxes, administering justice, and protecting subjects-this does not mean that the Papal State was free of violence, famine, and so forth. Banditry remained a major problem during the period and would straight through to the late nineteenth century. §REF§ (Symcox 2002, 110) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 745-746) Fernand Braudel. 1973. <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.</i> Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ <br>After the end of the Wars, military action involving the papacy shifted to the Mediterranean. The Ottomans had begun raiding papal possessions on the Adriatic littoral from the mid-15th century, following the fall of Constantinople. These raids were not preludes to conquest, but were a serious disruption to trade and daily life in <i>le Marche</i>; in 1518, Selim I's forces had torched Porto Recanati, the port for Loreto, site of a major shrine to the Virgin. This imminent threat, compounded with the papacy's traditional role as organizer and propagandist of the crusade, resulted in deep papal involvement in the struggle against the Ottomans. Initially, these efforts were not successful. The major Turkish victory at Prevesa (1538) opened the Central Mediterranean to Turkish raiding and piracy; the Ottomans' alliance with the French even allowed the Turkish fleet to winter in Toulon. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 906) Fernand Braudel. 1973. <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.</i> Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ This ability of the Turks to winter in the western Mediterranean exposed the coast of Lazio to Turkish piracy; for example, Andrea Doria, leading a mixed papal-Genoese fleet, was defeated by Turks and North Africans off Terracina in 1552. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 924) Fernand Braudel. 1973. <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.</i> Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ <br>Confronted with this Turkish menace, the papacy was crucial in organizing Christian campaigns against the Turks in North Africa and Greece, and in funding coastal defences for Lazio and the Kingdoms of Sicily & Naples. Pius V (1566-1572) was of particular importance in this effort, laying the groundwork for a papal fleet. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 1083) Fernand Braudel. 1973. <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.</i> Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ Pius granted major sources of ecclesiastical revenue to the Spanish Philip II, and was instrumental in organizing the councils and diplomatic wrangling that led to the creation of the Holy League in 1570, in particular convincing the Spanish to come to the aid of the Ventians. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 1029) Fernand Braudel. 1973. <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.</i> Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ The Holy League consisted of the Papacy, Spain, and Venice; by the final agreement, each party agreed to contributions for 3 years, for an annual expedition consisting of 200 galleys, 100 roundships, 50,000 infantry and 4,500 light infantry. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 1091) Fernand Braudel. 1973. <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.</i> Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ The Christian fleet met and decisively defeated a comparable Turkish squadron at Lepanto, off the Greek Ionian littoral, on 7 October 1571. It was the greatest battle in the Mediterranean in the 16th century, and it marked a substantive end to Turkish raiding on the papal lands and, more importantly, led to the division of the Mediterranean into a Turkish east and a Christian west. The papacy's international prestige rose to new heights with the victory, as well, but declined during the seventeenth century due to the grasping annexation of the duchy of Urbino and Urban VIII's foolish war of Castro in the early 1640s. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 9-10) Dominc Sella. 1997. <i>Italy in the Seventeeth Century.</i> London & New York: Longman. §REF§ <br>Italy enjoyed several decades of peace following the peace of Cateau-Cambresis of 1559 between France and Spain. Yet economically and demographically, the 1590s and the first half of the seventeenth century were a period of general crisis in Italy. The \"decline of Italy\" is a venerable aspect of early modern historiography, but depends on a particular view of what counts in assessing quality of life: see Black, (2001, 32), for an approving echo of Braudel's comments to the contrary §REF§ (Black 2001, 32) Christopher F Black. 2001. <i>Early modern Italy. A social history.</i> London: Routledge. §REF§ Papal revenues were aided by the popes' ability to draw on Spanish ecclesiastical revenues. §REF§ (Dandelet 2003, 219-232) Thomas Dandelet. 2003. \"The Spanish Foundations of Late Renaissance and Baroque Rome.\" In <i>Beyond Florence. The Contours of Medieval and Early Modern Italy.</i>Paula Findlen, Michelle M. Fontaine, and Duane J. Osheim eds. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP. pp. 219-232 §REF§ Demographically, the first half of the seventeenth century was a succession of plagues and famines in many parts of the peninsula. §REF§ (Black 2001, 23) Christopher F Black. 2001. <i>Early modern Italy. A social history.</i> London: Routledge. §REF§ A particularly virulent plague cycle hit Rome in 1656, §REF§ (Cipolla 1981, 90) Carlo M Cipolla. 1981. <i>Fighting the plague in Seventeenth-century Italy.</i> Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. §REF§ dropping its population from 120,000 to 100,000. §REF§ (Black 2001, 23) Christopher F Black. 2001. <i>Early modern Italy. A social history.</i> London: Routledge. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-05-07T08:35:48.112337Z", "home_nga": { "id": 1, "name": "Latium", "subregion": "Southern Europe", "longitude": "12.486948000000", "latitude": "41.890407000000", "capital_city": "Rome", "nga_code": "IT", "fao_country": "Italy", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 38, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }