Polity Suprapolity Relations List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Suprapolity Relations.
GET /api/general/polity-suprapolities/?format=api&ordering=created_date
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This era witnessed the transformation of Bohemia from a duchy into a kingdom, with Prague emerging as a significant cultural and political center in Central Europe.§REF§Jaroslav Pánek and Oldřich Tůma, A History of the Czech Lands (Prague: Karolinum Press, 2009).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5MFK58ZP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5MFK58ZP</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe formal recognition of Bohemia as a kingdom came in 1198, when Duke Ottokar I assumed the title of King, a status confirmed by the Holy Roman Emperor. This elevation reflected not only the growing power and prestige of the Přemyslid rulers but also the strategic importance of Bohemia within the Holy Roman Empire.§REF§Jörg K. Hoensch, Geschichte Böhmens: von der slavischen Landnahme bis zur Gegenwart.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/APL977ZI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: APL977ZI</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Přemyslid dynasty, which traced its origins back to the 9th century, was instrumental in shaping the identity and political structures of the Bohemian state.§REF§Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Neue Deutsche Biographie.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2B7YCXT3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2B7YCXT3</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nOne of the most notable rulers of this period was Ottokar II (1253-1278), known as Ottokar the Great. His reign was characterized by ambitious territorial expansion, extending Bohemian control over adjacent regions, including Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, thereby significantly enhancing the kingdom's power and influence in Central Europe. Ottokar II's efforts to consolidate his rule and expand his territory brought him into conflict with other regional powers and the Holy Roman Emperor, leading to his eventual defeat and death at the Battle of Marchfeld in 1278.§REF§Hoensch, Přemysl Otakar II. von Böhmen.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LVNSK3MW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LVNSK3MW</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nDespite the dynastic challenges and occasional conflicts with the Holy Roman Empire, the Přemyslid dynasty succeeded in maintaining Bohemia's sovereignty and distinct identity within the imperial framework. The legal codifications and administrative reforms of this period laid the groundwork for the kingdom's future development.\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe end of the Přemyslid dynasty came in 1306, following the assassination of Wenceslaus III. The subsequent period saw the rise of the Luxembourg dynasty, which would continue to shape the kingdom's trajectory in the future.§REF§Hirschbiegel, Höfe und Residenzen im spätmittelalterlichen Reich.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R4DMTD9L\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: R4DMTD9L</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-02-06T12:13:29.036347Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 30, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach" }, "other_polity": { "id": 809, "name": "pl_piast_dyn_2", "start_year": 1139, "end_year": 1382, "long_name": "Polish Kingdom - Piast Dynasty Fragmented Period", "new_name": "pl_piast_dyn_2", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "When Bolesław III Wrymouth died on 28 October 1138, he was aware of the potential for conflict among his sons and devised a testament aiming to prevent the fragmentation of the kingdom. His will, known as the Testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LUJ3NYJU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU</b></a>§REF§, divided Poland among his sons, granting them hereditary duchies while trying to maintain some level of unity under the senioral principle. This principle established that the eldest member of the dynasty, holding the Seniorate Province with Kraków as its capital, would have a primacy over the other dukes and the right to be called the High Duke of Poland. The \"Senioral Principle\" was soon broken, leading to a period of nearly 200 years of disintegration known as feudal fragmentation which divided the Polish state into several semi-independent principalities without a single ruler governed by various branches of the Piast dynasty.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</b></a>§REF§ \r\nThe reunification of Poland under Władysław I in 14th century marked the end of fragmentation. His son, Casimir III the Great (1333-1370) strengthened royal authority. Casimir's reign, devoid of major external conflicts, allowed for significant internal development, including the founding of the University of Krakow in 1364, one of the oldest universities in Europe.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</b></a>§REF§\r\nThe end of the Piast dynasty in 1370, with the death of Casimir III, led to the initiation of the Angevin and later Jagiellonian dynasties, under which Poland entered into a union with Lithuania.§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LUJ3NYJU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "I expanded the end date of this polity to include the last personal union between Hungary and Poland during Louis I of Hungary's reign.", "created_date": "2024-02-28T14:45:23.434662Z", "modified_date": "2024-06-12T12:00:04.748967Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 25, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 380, "year_from": 1419, "year_to": 1437, "description": "Sigismund of Luxembourg held the Kingdom of Bohemia in personal union from 1419 to 1437.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BBKM3AR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-03-17T20:35:08.010627Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-25T10:34:42.850489Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "personal union", "polity": { "id": 811, "name": "hu_later_dyn", "start_year": 1302, "end_year": 1526, "long_name": "Hungary Kingdom - Anjou and Later Dynasties", "new_name": "hu_later_dyn", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "Following the Árpád dynasty's end, Hungary entered a period marked by the Angevin and Jagiellonian dynasties, leading up to the significant Battle of Mohács in 1526.§REF§László Kontler, Millennium in Central Europe: A History of Hungary (Budapest: Atlantisz, 1999).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CSSN8HUW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CSSN8HUW</b></a>§REF§The Angevin kings, notably Charles I and Louis I, expanded Hungary's influence in Central Europe through military campaigns and administrative reforms, enhancing the kingdom's power. The era saw Hungary's involvement in European politics intensify, especially under the rule of Sigismund of Luxembourg, who linked Hungary with Bohemia and Poland, aiming to strengthen royal authority and address external threats, notably from the Ottoman Empire.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BBKM3AR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR</b></a>§REF§ The period was characterized by dynastic changes, efforts towards centralization, and significant cultural developments, yet it also faced challenges such as internal strife and the looming threat of Ottoman conquest. This era concluded with the devastating defeat at Mohács,§REF§ Gábor Ágoston and Bruce Alan Masters, eds., Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, Facts on File library of world history (New York, NY: Facts On File, 2009).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KJPGPVLD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KJPGPVLD</b></a>§REF§ leading to Hungary's fragmentation and marking the end of medieval Hungarian sovereignty.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": "2024-03-01T11:47:44.608679Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-11T12:59:02.413834Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": { "id": 568, "name": "cz_bohemian_k_2", "start_year": 1310, "end_year": 1526, "long_name": "Kingdom of Bohemia - Luxembourgian and Jagiellonian Dynasty", "new_name": "cz_bohemian_k_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>“The physical setting for this history is fixed easily enough: the lands of the present-day Czech Republic, which closely correspond to the core of the historical Kingdom of Bohemia (Bohemia proper, Mora- via, and part of Silesia) lie between 51° 03’ and 48° 33’ north latitude, and 12° 05’ and 18° 51’ east longitude.”§REF§(Agnew 2004: 4) Agnew, Hugh LeCaine. 2004. The Czechs and the Lands of the Bohemian Crown. California: Hoover Institution Press. http://archive.org/details/czechslandsofboh0000agne. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6LBQ5ARI§REF§<br>This polity period begins and ends with the rule of the House of Luxembourg, which succeeded four centuries of the Přemyslid dynasty. “From 1310 to 1437 Bohemia was ruled by the House of Luxemburg, many of whom were Emperors of Germany as well as Kings of Bohemia.”§REF§(Thorndike 1917: 552) Thorndike, Lynn. 1917. The History of Medieval Europe. Massachusetts, USA: The Riverside Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KJSEM6KC§REF§ “Sigismund, who it will be remembered, became emperor in 1410, succeeded his brother Wenzel as King of Bohemia as well, where he reigned from 1419 to his death in 1437, so far as the Hussites, indignant at his betrayal of their leader, would let him. On Sigismund's death, Bohemia and Hungary, like the imperial office which he had held, passed for a few years to the House of Hapsburg. But then, through exercise of the old custom of election by the nobility, the two lands came under the rule of native kings and did not again come into the possession of the Austrian dynasty until well into the sixteenth century.”§REF§(Thorndike 1917: 553) Thorndike, Lynn. 1917. The History of Medieval Europe. Massachusetts, USA: The Riverside Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KJSEM6KC§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-26T14:05:25.538254Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 381, "year_from": 1440, "year_to": 1444, "description": "Vladislaus I (Władysław III of Poland / Vladislaus I of Hungary) held the Kingdom of Hungary in personal union from 1440 to 1444.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BBKM3AR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-03-18T10:57:41.173207Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-25T10:35:06.517538Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "personal union", "polity": { "id": 334, "name": "PlPoLit", "start_year": 1386, "end_year": 1569, "long_name": "Poland-Lithuania Kingdom", "new_name": "pl_jagiellonian_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-03-12T09:43:17.211764Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": { "id": 811, "name": "hu_later_dyn", "start_year": 1302, "end_year": 1526, "long_name": "Hungary Kingdom - Anjou and Later Dynasties", "new_name": "hu_later_dyn", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "Following the Árpád dynasty's end, Hungary entered a period marked by the Angevin and Jagiellonian dynasties, leading up to the significant Battle of Mohács in 1526.§REF§László Kontler, Millennium in Central Europe: A History of Hungary (Budapest: Atlantisz, 1999).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CSSN8HUW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CSSN8HUW</b></a>§REF§The Angevin kings, notably Charles I and Louis I, expanded Hungary's influence in Central Europe through military campaigns and administrative reforms, enhancing the kingdom's power. The era saw Hungary's involvement in European politics intensify, especially under the rule of Sigismund of Luxembourg, who linked Hungary with Bohemia and Poland, aiming to strengthen royal authority and address external threats, notably from the Ottoman Empire.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BBKM3AR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR</b></a>§REF§ The period was characterized by dynastic changes, efforts towards centralization, and significant cultural developments, yet it also faced challenges such as internal strife and the looming threat of Ottoman conquest. This era concluded with the devastating defeat at Mohács,§REF§ Gábor Ágoston and Bruce Alan Masters, eds., Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, Facts on File library of world history (New York, NY: Facts On File, 2009).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KJPGPVLD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KJPGPVLD</b></a>§REF§ leading to Hungary's fragmentation and marking the end of medieval Hungarian sovereignty.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": "2024-03-01T11:47:44.608679Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-11T12:59:02.413834Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 384, "year_from": 1490, "year_to": 1516, "description": "Vladislaus II controlled the Kingdom of Hungary in personal union from 1490–1516.§REF§Jaroslav Pánek and Oldřich Tůma, A History of the Czech Lands (Prague: Karolinum Press, 2009).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5MFK58ZP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5MFK58ZP</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-03-25T11:06:39.892005Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-25T11:06:39.892019Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "personal union", "polity": { "id": 568, "name": "cz_bohemian_k_2", "start_year": 1310, "end_year": 1526, "long_name": "Kingdom of Bohemia - Luxembourgian and Jagiellonian Dynasty", "new_name": "cz_bohemian_k_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>“The physical setting for this history is fixed easily enough: the lands of the present-day Czech Republic, which closely correspond to the core of the historical Kingdom of Bohemia (Bohemia proper, Mora- via, and part of Silesia) lie between 51° 03’ and 48° 33’ north latitude, and 12° 05’ and 18° 51’ east longitude.”§REF§(Agnew 2004: 4) Agnew, Hugh LeCaine. 2004. The Czechs and the Lands of the Bohemian Crown. California: Hoover Institution Press. http://archive.org/details/czechslandsofboh0000agne. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6LBQ5ARI§REF§<br>This polity period begins and ends with the rule of the House of Luxembourg, which succeeded four centuries of the Přemyslid dynasty. “From 1310 to 1437 Bohemia was ruled by the House of Luxemburg, many of whom were Emperors of Germany as well as Kings of Bohemia.”§REF§(Thorndike 1917: 552) Thorndike, Lynn. 1917. The History of Medieval Europe. Massachusetts, USA: The Riverside Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KJSEM6KC§REF§ “Sigismund, who it will be remembered, became emperor in 1410, succeeded his brother Wenzel as King of Bohemia as well, where he reigned from 1419 to his death in 1437, so far as the Hussites, indignant at his betrayal of their leader, would let him. On Sigismund's death, Bohemia and Hungary, like the imperial office which he had held, passed for a few years to the House of Hapsburg. But then, through exercise of the old custom of election by the nobility, the two lands came under the rule of native kings and did not again come into the possession of the Austrian dynasty until well into the sixteenth century.”§REF§(Thorndike 1917: 553) Thorndike, Lynn. 1917. The History of Medieval Europe. Massachusetts, USA: The Riverside Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KJSEM6KC§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-26T14:05:25.538254Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": { "id": 811, "name": "hu_later_dyn", "start_year": 1302, "end_year": 1526, "long_name": "Hungary Kingdom - Anjou and Later Dynasties", "new_name": "hu_later_dyn", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "Following the Árpád dynasty's end, Hungary entered a period marked by the Angevin and Jagiellonian dynasties, leading up to the significant Battle of Mohács in 1526.§REF§László Kontler, Millennium in Central Europe: A History of Hungary (Budapest: Atlantisz, 1999).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CSSN8HUW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CSSN8HUW</b></a>§REF§The Angevin kings, notably Charles I and Louis I, expanded Hungary's influence in Central Europe through military campaigns and administrative reforms, enhancing the kingdom's power. The era saw Hungary's involvement in European politics intensify, especially under the rule of Sigismund of Luxembourg, who linked Hungary with Bohemia and Poland, aiming to strengthen royal authority and address external threats, notably from the Ottoman Empire.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BBKM3AR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR</b></a>§REF§ The period was characterized by dynastic changes, efforts towards centralization, and significant cultural developments, yet it also faced challenges such as internal strife and the looming threat of Ottoman conquest. This era concluded with the devastating defeat at Mohács,§REF§ Gábor Ágoston and Bruce Alan Masters, eds., Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, Facts on File library of world history (New York, NY: Facts On File, 2009).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KJPGPVLD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KJPGPVLD</b></a>§REF§ leading to Hungary's fragmentation and marking the end of medieval Hungarian sovereignty.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": "2024-03-01T11:47:44.608679Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-11T12:59:02.413834Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 385, "year_from": 1516, "year_to": 1526, "description": "Louis II of Hungary (Louis the Jagiellonian) ruled both Bohemia and Hungary from 1516–1526.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BBKM3AR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-03-25T11:17:55.936690Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-25T11:17:55.936702Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "personal union", "polity": { "id": 811, "name": "hu_later_dyn", "start_year": 1302, "end_year": 1526, "long_name": "Hungary Kingdom - Anjou and Later Dynasties", "new_name": "hu_later_dyn", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "Following the Árpád dynasty's end, Hungary entered a period marked by the Angevin and Jagiellonian dynasties, leading up to the significant Battle of Mohács in 1526.§REF§László Kontler, Millennium in Central Europe: A History of Hungary (Budapest: Atlantisz, 1999).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CSSN8HUW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CSSN8HUW</b></a>§REF§The Angevin kings, notably Charles I and Louis I, expanded Hungary's influence in Central Europe through military campaigns and administrative reforms, enhancing the kingdom's power. The era saw Hungary's involvement in European politics intensify, especially under the rule of Sigismund of Luxembourg, who linked Hungary with Bohemia and Poland, aiming to strengthen royal authority and address external threats, notably from the Ottoman Empire.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BBKM3AR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR</b></a>§REF§ The period was characterized by dynastic changes, efforts towards centralization, and significant cultural developments, yet it also faced challenges such as internal strife and the looming threat of Ottoman conquest. This era concluded with the devastating defeat at Mohács,§REF§ Gábor Ágoston and Bruce Alan Masters, eds., Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, Facts on File library of world history (New York, NY: Facts On File, 2009).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KJPGPVLD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KJPGPVLD</b></a>§REF§ leading to Hungary's fragmentation and marking the end of medieval Hungarian sovereignty.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": "2024-03-01T11:47:44.608679Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-11T12:59:02.413834Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": { "id": 568, "name": "cz_bohemian_k_2", "start_year": 1310, "end_year": 1526, "long_name": "Kingdom of Bohemia - Luxembourgian and Jagiellonian Dynasty", "new_name": "cz_bohemian_k_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>“The physical setting for this history is fixed easily enough: the lands of the present-day Czech Republic, which closely correspond to the core of the historical Kingdom of Bohemia (Bohemia proper, Mora- via, and part of Silesia) lie between 51° 03’ and 48° 33’ north latitude, and 12° 05’ and 18° 51’ east longitude.”§REF§(Agnew 2004: 4) Agnew, Hugh LeCaine. 2004. The Czechs and the Lands of the Bohemian Crown. California: Hoover Institution Press. http://archive.org/details/czechslandsofboh0000agne. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6LBQ5ARI§REF§<br>This polity period begins and ends with the rule of the House of Luxembourg, which succeeded four centuries of the Přemyslid dynasty. “From 1310 to 1437 Bohemia was ruled by the House of Luxemburg, many of whom were Emperors of Germany as well as Kings of Bohemia.”§REF§(Thorndike 1917: 552) Thorndike, Lynn. 1917. The History of Medieval Europe. Massachusetts, USA: The Riverside Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KJSEM6KC§REF§ “Sigismund, who it will be remembered, became emperor in 1410, succeeded his brother Wenzel as King of Bohemia as well, where he reigned from 1419 to his death in 1437, so far as the Hussites, indignant at his betrayal of their leader, would let him. On Sigismund's death, Bohemia and Hungary, like the imperial office which he had held, passed for a few years to the House of Hapsburg. But then, through exercise of the old custom of election by the nobility, the two lands came under the rule of native kings and did not again come into the possession of the Austrian dynasty until well into the sixteenth century.”§REF§(Thorndike 1917: 553) Thorndike, Lynn. 1917. The History of Medieval Europe. Massachusetts, USA: The Riverside Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KJSEM6KC§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-26T14:05:25.538254Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 386, "year_from": 1519, "year_to": 1556, "description": "Charles I (Charles V) held the Archduchy of Austria from 1519 to 1521 before he abdicated as Duke of Austria in favour of his brother, Ferdinand I, who had also been made King of the Romans in 1531. Ferdinand continued to rule in his name as Imperial Lieutenant until Charles I's abdication in 1556.§REF§Martyn C. Rady, The Emperor Charles V, Seminar studies in history (London ; New York: Longman, 1988).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Y6MXWNC7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Y6MXWNC7</b></a>§REF§§REF§Fichtner, Paula. 2017. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490-1848: Attributes of Empire. Macmillan International Higher Education. 116, 123, 124–5, 130.§REF§ §REF§Whaley, Joachim. 2018. \"The early modern empire (1): from Maximilian I to the Thirty Years Wars\" in The Holy Roman Empire: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-03-25T11:39:47.320689Z", "modified_date": "2024-04-12T09:06:12.180521Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "personal union", "polity": { "id": 84, "name": "EsHabsb", "start_year": 1516, "end_year": 1715, "long_name": "Spanish Empire I", "new_name": "es_spanish_emp_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Habsburg Dynasty came together as Ferdinand II united the Kingdoms of Aragon and Castile under his rule. When he died in 1516 CE, his grandson Charles I—son of the Aragon Queen Joanna and the Habsburg Philip, a Prince in the Holy Roman Empire—became the first crowned King of All Spain.<br>The Spanish Habsburg empire held territory in northern Europe, Italy, the Mediterranean, the Americas, Africa, India, and the Orient. “Yet Spain itself was rather unpromising material for greatness; the land was barren, the economy backward and the peninsula was politically fragmented.” §REF§ (Darby 2014, preview). Darby, Graham. 2014. <i>Spain in the seventeenth century</i>. New York: Routledge. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3XIHTNCH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3XIHTNCH</a> §REF§ <br>The Austrian Habsburg family inherited the Valois duchy of Burgundy (present day Holland, Belgium, Luxemburg, and part of Burgundy) and the crowns of Aragon (including Balearics, Sardinia, Naples, and Sicily) and Castile (including Navarre, and the Americas- Mexico and Peru). This territory was inherited by Charles Habsburg (Charles V, 1519-56). When Charles V abdicated in 1555-56 he spilt the territory between his brother and his son (Austrian and Spanish branches of the Habsburgs), thus expanding the Spanish Habsburg Empire even further by 1556. §REF§ (Darby 2014, preview). Darby, Graham. 2014. <i>Spain in the seventeenth century</i>. New York: Routledge. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3XIHTNCH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3XIHTNCH</a> §REF§ <br>Spain's territorial conquests brought in a wealth of gold and other resources from around the world. This boom led to a rapid growth in urbanization and marketization, as several Spanish cities became major hubs of production for manufactured goods (metal products and textiles especially). §REF§ Pocket World History in Figures §REF§ <br>By 1550 the Habsburg Empire had a population of 29 million across the world, including 9 million native people in the lands they had colonised.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-03-14T12:32:06.256900Z", "home_nga": { "id": 30, "name": "Cuzco", "subregion": "Andes", "longitude": "-72.067772000000", "latitude": "-13.477380000000", "capital_city": "Cuzco", "nga_code": "PE", "fao_country": "Peru", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 6, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach" }, "other_polity": { "id": 565, "name": "at_habsburg_1", "start_year": 1454, "end_year": 1648, "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty I", "new_name": "at_habsburg_1", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "Frederick III from the House of Habsburg was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1452, marking the beginning of an almost unbroken line of Habsburg Emperors.§REF§Heinig, Kaiser Friedrich III. (1440-1493).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LA5W94UA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LA5W94UA</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nHe elevated the Duchy of Austria to Archduchy, a unique title specifically created for the House of Habsburg which elevated the Archduke above all other Dukes which signifies Austria's position of power and influence within the Holy Roman Empire (HRE), but it was through the astute marriage policies—often summarized by the motto \"Let others wage war, but you, happy Austria, marry\"—that they significantly expanded their power.§REF§Judson, The Habsburg Empire.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SFXDYXYU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SFXDYXYU</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nNotably, the marriage of Maximilian I to Mary of Burgundy in 1477 brought the Habsburgs into possession of the Burgundian Netherlands, a valuable and strategically located set of territories.\r\nThe reign of Maximilian I (1493-1519) also saw further consolidation of Habsburg power within the HRE, culminating in his grandson Charles V's election as Holy Roman Emperor in 1519. Charles V's vast empire, spanning from Spain to parts of Italy, Germany, and the Americas, marked the peak of Habsburg power, embodying the phrase \"the empire on which the sun never sets.\" His reign was marked by religious upheaval, including the Reformation, and constant military engagements, most notably against France and the Ottoman Empire.§REF§Judson, The Habsburg Empire.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SFXDYXYU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SFXDYXYU</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Kingdom of Bohemia was incorporated into Habsburg domains during this period. The process began with the marriage of Ferdinand I, a Habsburg, to Anna of Bohemia and Hungary in 1521, strategically positioning the Habsburgs for a claim to the Bohemian throne. The opportunity for direct control came in 1526, following the Battle of Mohács, after which Ferdinand I claimed the thrones of Bohemia and Hungary due to the death of Louis II, who died without an heir at the battle.§REF§Jaroslav Pánek and Oldřich Tůma, A History of the Czech Lands (Prague: Karolinum Press, 2009).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5MFK58ZP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5MFK58ZP</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\nThe period also witnessed the beginning of the long-standing struggle with the Ottoman Empire, including the first siege of Vienna in 1529, which marked the Ottoman Empire's furthest advance into Europe. The military engagements against the Ottomans continued for decades, influencing the political and military strategies of the Habsburgs.§REF§Klaus-Jürgen Bremm, Die Türken Vor Wien: Zwei Weltmächte Im Ringen Um Europa.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VYHYLAE2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VYHYLAE2</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe period culminated in the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) , a defining conflict of this era. The war started as a religious conflict but evolved into a broader power struggle within Europe. The Habsburgs' role in the war was central, with Ferdinand II's attempts to consolidate Catholic power within the Empire leading to widespread conflict. The war concluded with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which had profound implications for the Habsburgs and the HRE, leading to the recognition of the sovereignty of the constituent states of the Empire and a decline in the central power of the Emperor.§REF§Arndt, Der Dreißigjährige Krieg.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PULFEDKX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PULFEDKX</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-03-12T10:04:15.712719Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 387, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-03-27T10:03:04.334483Z", "modified_date": "2024-05-24T19:06:45.940241Z", "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "nominal allegiance", "polity": { "id": 798, "name": "de_east_francia", "start_year": 842, "end_year": 919, "long_name": "East Francia", "new_name": "de_east_francia", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "The Treaty of Verdun in 843, which divided the Carolingian Empire among Charlemagne's grandsons, marked the beginning of East Francia as a distinct entity, comprising the lands that are now Germany, along with parts of Austria and Italy.§REF§Carlrichard Brühl et al., Die Geburt zweier Völker: Deutsche und Franzosen (9. - 11. Jahrhundert) (Köln Weimar Wien: Böhlau, 2001).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JNUIX7CZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JNUIX7CZ</b></a>§REF§\r\nLouis the German, one of Charlemagne's grandsons, became the first ruler of East Francia. His reign was characterized by efforts to consolidate his rule and manage the diverse and often fractious duchies within his kingdom. The Carolingian legacy of centralized rule faced challenges in East Francia due to the strong local powers of the dukes and the ongoing threat of external invasions, particularly from the Vikings and Slavic tribes.§REF§Biographie, “Ludwig - Deutsche Biographie.”<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HHAVIEKX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HHAVIEKX</b></a>§REF§\r\nThe Carolingian influence in East Francia was evident in its administrative and cultural institutions, which were inherited from the unified Carolingian Empire. The use of the Carolingian minuscule in writing, the promotion of Christian monasticism, and the Carolingian Renaissance's intellectual and artistic endeavors continued to shape East Francian society.§REF§Carlrichard Brühl et al., Die Geburt zweier Völker: Deutsche und Franzosen (9. - 11. Jahrhundert) (Köln Weimar Wien: Böhlau, 2001).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JNUIX7CZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JNUIX7CZ</b></a>§REF§However, the Carolingian grip on East Francia began to weaken towards the end of the 9th century, as internal divisions, succession disputes, and external pressures strained the kingdom's unity and governance. The death of Louis the Child in 911, the last Carolingian ruler of East Francia, marked the end of Carolingian rule in the region and led to the election of Conrad I of the Franconian dynasty as king, signaling a shift in the political landscape.§REF§Carlrichard Brühl et al., Die Geburt zweier Völker: Deutsche und Franzosen (9. - 11. Jahrhundert) (Köln Weimar Wien: Böhlau, 2001).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JNUIX7CZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JNUIX7CZ</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": "2024-01-26T14:08:05.263763Z", "modified_date": "2024-04-19T13:45:20.761562Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": { "id": 311, "name": "FrCarlL", "start_year": 840, "end_year": 987, "long_name": "Carolingian Empire II", "new_name": "fr_carolingian_emp_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Members of the Carolingian Dynasty had served as mayors of the palace under the Merovingian kings from the late 7th century CE onwards, wielding substantial power behind the throne. In 752 CE, however, Childeric III (last of the Merovingian rulers) was deposed and they seized outright control of the Frankish realm. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 292) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Morby and Rozier 2014) Morby, John E., and Charlie Rozier. 2014. Dynasties of the World. 2nd ed., online edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acref/9780191780073.001.0001. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3C5IVS6E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3C5IVS6E</a>. §REF§ With the new dynasty the capital moved east: Aachen, or Aix-la-Chapelle, became the main royal residence of the Carolingian monarchs until the empire began to disintegrate in the 9th century. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 31) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Aix-La-Chapelle.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 31-32. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/J93C7T3S\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/J93C7T3S</a>. §REF§ <br>Charlemagne was the most powerful Carolingian king, but after his death in 811 CE, the empire stopped expanding. The year 811 also marked the beginning of a rise in sociopolitical instability that resulted ultimately in a complete split of the kingdom. After the 843 CE Treaty of Verdun, the Carolingian lands were partitioned among Louis the Pious' sons: Charles took the west, Louis the German the east, and Lothair took the Frankish territory between these two regions. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 332) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>. §REF§ The Treaty of Meerssen (870 CE) resulted in the absorption of the central Frankish realm into West and East Francia, forming a boundary that even now endures as the border between France and Germany. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 332-33) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>. §REF§ The empire was briefly reunited from 884 to 887 under Charles the Fat, §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 333) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>. §REF§ but as a rule the Frankish lands remained politically fragmented from the mid-9th century to 987 CE, when power passed to the Capetian Dynasty. §REF§ (Bouchard 1995, 312) Bouchard, Constance B. 1995. “Capetian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 312-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNRCJVG\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNRCJVG</a>. §REF§ <br>This polity represents the late period of Carolingian rule, from 840 to 987 CE.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In the Carolingian era, the lands under Frankish control grew considerably and an administrative system was developed in order to govern this large territory. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 329-30) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>. §REF§ One official position that first appeared in this period was the <i>missus dominicus</i> (king's representative), who could be sent out from the court to inspect the counties and pass on the king's decrees. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>. §REF§ Decrees were sometimes set down in documents called capitularies. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>. §REF§ However, capitularies post-dating 843 CE are only found in West Francia, and they stopped being produced there too after the death of Charles the Bald in 877. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 318) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Capitulary.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 318-19. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/K3U2V585\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/K3U2V585</a>. §REF§ This might suggest that the office of <i>missus dominicus</i> did not exist beyond that date and did not survive the rise in instability.<br>The Carolingian kings ruled in an essentially decentralized fashion like the Merovingians before them. Control over the regions was delegated to fief holders, often hereditary vassals of the king. §REF§ (Nicolle 1995, 18) Nicolle, David. 2005. Carolingian Cavalryman AD 768-987. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QHXZFXS3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QHXZFXS3</a>. §REF§ The king ruled by decree §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>. §REF§ and under Charlemagne (r. 800-814 CE) counties were established as the basic unit of governance. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>. §REF§ Counts were responsible for enforcing local laws, dispensing justice and setting taxes. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>. §REF§ By 850 CE, almost every county in West Francia also had a viscount, who assisted the count in his duties. §REF§ (Boulton 1995, 1822) Boulton, D’A. Jonathan D. 1995. “Viscount/Viscounty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1822-23. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IZK522AK\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IZK522AK</a>. §REF§ <br>During Charlemagne's reign, the population of Gaul probably reached 5 million §REF§ (Percy, Jr. 1995, 1415) Percy, Jr., William A. 1995. “Population and Demography.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1415-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM</a>. §REF§ but levels of urbanization were low in these supposed 'dark ages' of medieval France: no town reached over 10,000 inhabitants between the 8th century and 1000 CE. §REF§ (Percy, Jr. 1995, 1739) Percy, Jr., William A. 1995. “Towns.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1739-40. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z3F9HKUJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z3F9HKUJ</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 389, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-04-11T14:35:48.270540Z", "modified_date": "2024-04-24T13:24:32.400820Z", "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "vassalage", "polity": { "id": 568, "name": "cz_bohemian_k_2", "start_year": 1310, "end_year": 1526, "long_name": "Kingdom of Bohemia - Luxembourgian and Jagiellonian Dynasty", "new_name": "cz_bohemian_k_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>“The physical setting for this history is fixed easily enough: the lands of the present-day Czech Republic, which closely correspond to the core of the historical Kingdom of Bohemia (Bohemia proper, Mora- via, and part of Silesia) lie between 51° 03’ and 48° 33’ north latitude, and 12° 05’ and 18° 51’ east longitude.”§REF§(Agnew 2004: 4) Agnew, Hugh LeCaine. 2004. The Czechs and the Lands of the Bohemian Crown. California: Hoover Institution Press. http://archive.org/details/czechslandsofboh0000agne. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6LBQ5ARI§REF§<br>This polity period begins and ends with the rule of the House of Luxembourg, which succeeded four centuries of the Přemyslid dynasty. “From 1310 to 1437 Bohemia was ruled by the House of Luxemburg, many of whom were Emperors of Germany as well as Kings of Bohemia.”§REF§(Thorndike 1917: 552) Thorndike, Lynn. 1917. The History of Medieval Europe. Massachusetts, USA: The Riverside Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KJSEM6KC§REF§ “Sigismund, who it will be remembered, became emperor in 1410, succeeded his brother Wenzel as King of Bohemia as well, where he reigned from 1419 to his death in 1437, so far as the Hussites, indignant at his betrayal of their leader, would let him. On Sigismund's death, Bohemia and Hungary, like the imperial office which he had held, passed for a few years to the House of Hapsburg. But then, through exercise of the old custom of election by the nobility, the two lands came under the rule of native kings and did not again come into the possession of the Austrian dynasty until well into the sixteenth century.”§REF§(Thorndike 1917: 553) Thorndike, Lynn. 1917. The History of Medieval Europe. Massachusetts, USA: The Riverside Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KJSEM6KC§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-26T14:05:25.538254Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": null, "other_polity": { "id": 800, "name": "de_empire_3", "start_year": 1255, "end_year": 1453, "long_name": "Holy Roman Empire - Fragmented Period", "new_name": "de_empire_3", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "The Holy Roman Empire from 1255 to 1453 was characterized by internal restructuring, the assertion of princely and municipal autonomy, and the ongoing negotiation of power between secular and ecclesiastical authorities. This period is marked by significant transitions and the interplay of imperial ambition, regional princely power, and the persistent influence of the Papacy. §REF§Stollberg-Rilinger, Das Heilige Römische Reich Deutscher Nation.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FA7D8TKC\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FA7D8TKC</b></a>§REF§\r\nFollowing the Interregnum, a time characterized by a lack of clear imperial leadership after the fall of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, the Empire sought to re-establish its coherence under new leadership. This era is defined by the gradual emergence of territorial principalities and the increasing importance of cities and towns, reflecting a shift towards more localized forms of governance within the imperial framework and a reduction of central Imperial power and cohesion. The election of Rudolf I of Habsburg in 1273 brought some stability after years of internal strife and fragmentation. The Habsburg ascendancy marked the beginning of a dynasty that would later come to play a pivotal role in European politics. The immediate impact was a consolidation of power and establishing dynastic territories in Austria and surrounding regions, marking the beginning of the rise of Austria.§REF§Kaufhold, Deutsches Interregnum Und Europäische Politik.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3VKQVTUM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3VKQVTUM</b></a>§REF§\r\nThe period also witnessed the continuation of the struggle between the Empire and the Papacy, a remnant of the Investiture Conflict. While the overt conflict over investitures had diminished, the broader contest for influence between secular and ecclesiastical authorities persisted, influencing the political landscape of the Empire and beyond.§REF§Stollberg-Rilinger, Das Heilige Römische Reich Deutscher Nation.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FA7D8TKC\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FA7D8TKC</b></a>§REF§\r\nThe 14th and 15th centuries saw the rise of the Hanseatic League, a commercial and defensive alliance of merchant guilds and market towns in Northwestern and Central Europe. This development underscored the growing economic power of cities within the Empire and their increasing role in shaping regional politics and trade routes.§REF§Dollinger, Henn, and Dollinger, Die Hanse.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/I7DL372B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: I7DL372B</b></a>§REF§\r\nThe Golden Bull of 1356 was a landmark event, establishing a constitutional structure for the Empire and formalizing the electoral process for the selection of the Emperor.It formalized the creation of an Electoral College, consisting of seven prince-electors who were granted the exclusive right to elect the Emperor. These electors included the Archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne, the King of Bohemia, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke of Saxony, and the Margrave of Brandenburg. It also underscored the autonomy of the Emperor from the Papacy, stipulating that the election of the Emperor by the prince-electors was final and did not require papal approval.§REF§Hergemöller, Fürsten, Herren Und Städte Zu Nürnberg, 1355/56.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IZGE7CTD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: IZGE7CTD</b></a>§REF§This decree aimed to balance the power among the leading princes and the Emperor, laying the groundwork for the political system that would define the Empire's later stages.The late medieval period was also marked by external pressures, notably the Ottoman Empire's expansion into Europe. The fall of Constantinople in 1453, while not directly involving the Holy Roman Empire, signaled a significant shift in the balance of power and posed a looming threat to Christendom, including the territories of the Empire.§REF§“Fall of Constantinople | Facts, Summary, & Significance | Britannica.”<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CEWT25UW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CEWT25UW</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": "2024-01-26T14:16:47.880799Z", "modified_date": "2024-02-28T14:43:34.181125Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 390, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Bohemia acknowledged the Emperor's suzerainty and participated actively in the affairs of the Empire, fulfilling duties that are typical of a vassal state, while also maintaining a significant degree of autonomy in internal governance.§REF§Jörg K. Hoensch, Geschichte Böhmens: von der slavischen Landnahme bis zur Gegenwart.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/APL977ZI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: APL977ZI</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-04-24T12:22:16.937033Z", "modified_date": "2024-05-24T19:04:36.073156Z", "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "vassalage", "polity": { "id": 598, "name": "cz_bohemian_k_1", "start_year": 1198, "end_year": 1309, "long_name": "Kingdom of Bohemia - Přemyslid Dynasty", "new_name": "cz_bohemian_k_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kingdom of Bohemia under the Přemyslid dynasty from 1198 to 1309 CE was a period marked by significant development, territorial expansion, and the consolidation of royal power, which laid the foundational structures of the Bohemian state and its integration into the broader European medieval political landscape. This era witnessed the transformation of Bohemia from a duchy into a kingdom, with Prague emerging as a significant cultural and political center in Central Europe.§REF§Jaroslav Pánek and Oldřich Tůma, A History of the Czech Lands (Prague: Karolinum Press, 2009).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5MFK58ZP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5MFK58ZP</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe formal recognition of Bohemia as a kingdom came in 1198, when Duke Ottokar I assumed the title of King, a status confirmed by the Holy Roman Emperor. This elevation reflected not only the growing power and prestige of the Přemyslid rulers but also the strategic importance of Bohemia within the Holy Roman Empire.§REF§Jörg K. Hoensch, Geschichte Böhmens: von der slavischen Landnahme bis zur Gegenwart.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/APL977ZI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: APL977ZI</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Přemyslid dynasty, which traced its origins back to the 9th century, was instrumental in shaping the identity and political structures of the Bohemian state.§REF§Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Neue Deutsche Biographie.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2B7YCXT3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2B7YCXT3</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nOne of the most notable rulers of this period was Ottokar II (1253-1278), known as Ottokar the Great. His reign was characterized by ambitious territorial expansion, extending Bohemian control over adjacent regions, including Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, thereby significantly enhancing the kingdom's power and influence in Central Europe. Ottokar II's efforts to consolidate his rule and expand his territory brought him into conflict with other regional powers and the Holy Roman Emperor, leading to his eventual defeat and death at the Battle of Marchfeld in 1278.§REF§Hoensch, Přemysl Otakar II. von Böhmen.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LVNSK3MW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LVNSK3MW</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nDespite the dynastic challenges and occasional conflicts with the Holy Roman Empire, the Přemyslid dynasty succeeded in maintaining Bohemia's sovereignty and distinct identity within the imperial framework. The legal codifications and administrative reforms of this period laid the groundwork for the kingdom's future development.\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe end of the Přemyslid dynasty came in 1306, following the assassination of Wenceslaus III. The subsequent period saw the rise of the Luxembourg dynasty, which would continue to shape the kingdom's trajectory in the future.§REF§Hirschbiegel, Höfe und Residenzen im spätmittelalterlichen Reich.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R4DMTD9L\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: R4DMTD9L</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-02-06T12:13:29.036347Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 32, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach" }, "other_polity": { "id": 799, "name": "de_empire_2", "start_year": 1126, "end_year": 1254, "long_name": "Holy Roman Empire - Hohenstaufen and Welf Dynasties", "new_name": "de_empire_2", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "The Holy Roman Empire during the Hohenstaufen and Welf dynasties (1126 to 1254) represented a period of both significant internal strife and expansion. Spanning regions that include modern-day Germany, Italy, and parts of Eastern and Central Europe. The period is defined by an ongoing competition between the House of Welf and the Hohenstaufen dynasty. This rivalry, deeply rooted in contesting claims to territories and power, significantly influenced the Empire's internal dynamics.§REF§Odilo Engels, Die Staufer, 9., erg. Aufl., Kohlhammer-Urban-Taschenbücher Geschichte, Politikwissenschaft Bd. 154 (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2010).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HINBRJJK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HINBRJJK</b></a>§REF§\r\nThis period begins after the death of the last Salian emperor, Henry V, in 1125. He had no heirs, and a period of intra-elite conflict followed, with rival factions supporting the Saxon noble Lothair III and Conrad III, of the Hohenstaufen dynasty. In 1138, Conrad III was elected king, shifting the centre of imperial power to Swabia. Unlike the Ottonian and Salian rulers who preceded them, the Hohenstaufens faced challenges in asserting their control over the Empire's semi-autonomous territories. The lack of a central capital and unified legal system continued to characterize the Empire, with German kings maintaining their tradition of being crowned as Roman Emperors, a practice that underscored the Empire's claim to the Roman legacy. The House of Welf, wielding significant influence and territorial control, particularly in Saxony and Bavaria, emerged as formidable contenders to Hohenstaufen authority.§REF§Odilo Engels, Die Staufer, 9., erg. Aufl., Kohlhammer-Urban-Taschenbücher Geschichte, Politikwissenschaft Bd. 154 (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2010).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HINBRJJK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HINBRJJK</b></a>§REF§\r\nFrederick I Barbarossa, one of the most renowned Hohenstaufen emperors. His reign (1152-1190) was distinguished by efforts to assert imperial authority in Italy, leading to prolonged conflicts with the Lombard League and the Papacy.§REF§Knut Görich, Friedrich Barbarossa: Eine Biographie (München: C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9TFKFYQP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9TFKFYQP</b></a>§REF§ The period was also notable for the Crusades, with emperors like Frederick I and Frederick II participating in these expeditions, which, while aimed at expanding Christendom, also served to enhance the imperial prestige. Frederick II (1212-1250), in particular, stood out for his cultural patronage and administrative reforms, earning him the title Stupor Mundi (\"Wonder of the World\"). However, his reign was also marked by continuous conflicts with the Papacy and internal princely factions, underscoring the fractious nature of imperial authority.§REF§“Crusades - Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, Mediterranean | Britannica,” accessed February 4, 2024, https://www.britannica.com/event/Crusades/The-Crusade-of-Frederick-II.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VBH9IK4D\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VBH9IK4D</b></a>§REF§The struggle for control in Italy, especially over the Kingdom of Sicily, which was under Hohenstaufen rule through marriage alliances, further complicated the Empire's internal dynamics. These Italian campaigns drained the Empire's resources and diverted attention from northern territories, leading to increased autonomy for local princes and a gradual weakening of central authority.§REF§PAOLO GRILLO, LEGNANO 1176;UNA BATTAGLIA PER LA LIBERTA ([S.l.]: EDITORI LATERZA, 2012).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/49Y52W3A\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 49Y52W3A</b></a>§REF§§REF§Herbert Grundmann and Friedrich Baethgen, Deutsches Archiv Für Erforschung Des Mittelalters, 24 (Köln ; Graz: Böhlau, 1968)<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PG54JSAE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PG54JSAE</b></a>§REF§\r\nThe death of Frederick II and the subsequent demise of his heirs led to the Interregnum (1254-1273), a period of significant political fragmentation and decline in imperial power. This era saw the rise of princely states and the increasing irrelevance of the imperial title.§REF§Martin Kaufhold, Deutsches Interregnum Und Europäische Politik: Konfliktlösungen Und Entscheidungsstrukturen 1230-1280, Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Schriften Bd. 49 (Hannover: Hahnsche Buchhandlung, 2000).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3VKQVTUM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3VKQVTUM</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "JR 14.03.24: changing start date from 1138 to 1126 based on discussion with Jakob Zsambok. Previously there was a gap between de_empire_1 and de_empire_2. Also updated the GD.", "created_date": "2024-01-26T14:15:08.249726Z", "modified_date": "2024-04-15T14:59:04.617758Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 21, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }