Polity Duration List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Durations.
GET /api/general/polity-durations/
{ "count": 523, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/general/polity-durations/?page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 697, "year_from": 1198, "year_to": 1309, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-02-07T12:03:49.663638Z", "modified_date": "2024-02-07T12:03:49.663651Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1198, "polity_year_to": 1309, "polity": { "id": 598, "name": "cz_bohemian_k_1", "start_year": 1198, "end_year": 1309, "long_name": "Kingdom of Bohemia - Přemyslid Dynasty", "new_name": "cz_bohemian_k_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kingdom of Bohemia under the Přemyslid dynasty from 1198 to 1309 CE was a period marked by significant development, territorial expansion, and the consolidation of royal power, which laid the foundational structures of the Bohemian state and its integration into the broader European medieval political landscape. This era witnessed the transformation of Bohemia from a duchy into a kingdom, with Prague emerging as a significant cultural and political center in Central Europe.§REF§Jaroslav Pánek and Oldřich Tůma, A History of the Czech Lands (Prague: Karolinum Press, 2009).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5MFK58ZP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5MFK58ZP</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe formal recognition of Bohemia as a kingdom came in 1198, when Duke Ottokar I assumed the title of King, a status confirmed by the Holy Roman Emperor. This elevation reflected not only the growing power and prestige of the Přemyslid rulers but also the strategic importance of Bohemia within the Holy Roman Empire.§REF§Jörg K. Hoensch, Geschichte Böhmens: von der slavischen Landnahme bis zur Gegenwart.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/APL977ZI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: APL977ZI</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Přemyslid dynasty, which traced its origins back to the 9th century, was instrumental in shaping the identity and political structures of the Bohemian state.§REF§Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Neue Deutsche Biographie.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2B7YCXT3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2B7YCXT3</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nOne of the most notable rulers of this period was Ottokar II (1253-1278), known as Ottokar the Great. His reign was characterized by ambitious territorial expansion, extending Bohemian control over adjacent regions, including Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, thereby significantly enhancing the kingdom's power and influence in Central Europe. Ottokar II's efforts to consolidate his rule and expand his territory brought him into conflict with other regional powers and the Holy Roman Emperor, leading to his eventual defeat and death at the Battle of Marchfeld in 1278.§REF§Hoensch, Přemysl Otakar II. von Böhmen.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LVNSK3MW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LVNSK3MW</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nDespite the dynastic challenges and occasional conflicts with the Holy Roman Empire, the Přemyslid dynasty succeeded in maintaining Bohemia's sovereignty and distinct identity within the imperial framework. The legal codifications and administrative reforms of this period laid the groundwork for the kingdom's future development.\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe end of the Přemyslid dynasty came in 1306, following the assassination of Wenceslaus III. The subsequent period saw the rise of the Luxembourg dynasty, which would continue to shape the kingdom's trajectory in the future.§REF§Hirschbiegel, Höfe und Residenzen im spätmittelalterlichen Reich.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R4DMTD9L\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: R4DMTD9L</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-02-06T12:13:29.036347Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 699, "year_from": 1300, "year_to": 1400, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-02-08T14:05:09.430283Z", "modified_date": "2024-02-08T14:05:18.264404Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1300, "polity_year_to": 1400, "polity": { "id": 330, "name": "PlTeuton", "start_year": 1300, "end_year": 1400, "long_name": "State of the Teutonic Order", "new_name": "pl_teutonic_order", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The State of the Teutonic Order was a theocratic state which originated from the Teutonic Knights' efforts to Christianize the Baltic tribes, a mission that began in the early 13th century and continued aggressively throughout the 14th century. This period saw the Knights consolidating their control over Prussia and extending their influence into areas that are now part of modern-day Poland, Lithuania, and Latvia.\r\n\r\nThe administrative center of the State of the Teutonic Order was Marienburg Castle, which served as the key political and military hub. The state was characterized by a highly militarized society, with the Knights forming the ruling class. They established a network of castles and fortified towns throughout their territories to secure their control and facilitate further expansion. §REF§Jürgen Sarnowsky, Der Deutsche Orden, 3., durchgesehene Auflage., C.H. Beck Wissen 2428 (München: C.H.Beck, 2022).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QW4M9YTP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QW4M9YTP</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\nConflicts with neighboring powers, particularly Poland and Lithuania, were frequent as the state expanded. The most significant of these conflicts was the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, where the Teutonic Order faced a major defeat against a Polish-Lithuanian coalition.§REF§Gerald Iselt and Rolf Fuhrmann, eds., Tannenberg 1410: die Niederlage des Deutschen Ritterordens ; die Belagerung der Marienburg 1410, Heere & Waffen 7 (Berlin: Zeughaus-Verl, 2008).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HARPZFSE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HARPZFSE</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe state's eventual secularization in 1525 by Grand Master Albert of Brandenburg-Ansbach, transforming it into the Duchy of Prussia, marked the end of the Teutonic Knights' territorial rule and laid the groundwork for the emergence of the Prussian state.§REF§Jürgen Sarnowsky, Der Deutsche Orden, 3., durchgesehene Auflage., C.H. Beck Wissen 2428 (München: C.H.Beck, 2022).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QW4M9YTP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QW4M9YTP</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-02-08T14:04:02.288518Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 698, "year_from": 1618, "year_to": 1870, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-02-07T18:43:03.174456Z", "modified_date": "2024-02-07T18:43:03.174471Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1618, "polity_year_to": 1870, "polity": { "id": 802, "name": "de_brandenburg_2", "start_year": 1618, "end_year": 1870, "long_name": "Brandenburg-Prussia", "new_name": "de_hohenzollern_2", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "This period marks the rise of Brandenburg-Prussia from a principality to a leading European power, culminating in the unification of Germany, laying the groundwork for the modern German state.\r\n\r\nIt started with the personal union of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia under John Sigismund of the Hohenzollern dynasty in 1618. This union expanded Brandenburg's territorial reach and changed its political and religious landscape, combining Prussia's Lutheran territories with the predominantly Calvinist Brandenburg.§REF§Heinz Immekeppel, Das Herzogtum Preussen von 1603 Bis 1618, Studien zur Geschichte Preussens Bd. 24 (Köln: G. Grote, 1975).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XUFQZXAA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XUFQZXAA</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\nThe Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which concluded the Thirty Years' War, marked a turning point, granting Brandenburg-Prussia significant territorial expansions and sovereignty over its affairs, free from Imperial interference.§REF§Arndt, Der Dreißigjährige Krieg.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PULFEDKX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PULFEDKX</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\nUnder the \"Great Elector\" Frederick William (1640-1688), Brandenburg-Prussia underwent a series of sweeping reforms aimed at centralizing authority. He is credited with laying the administrative foundations of the Prussian state.§REF§Barbara Beuys, Der Große Kurfürst: der Mann, der Preußen schuf, Rororo rororo - Sachbuch 7820 (Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt-Taschenbuch-Verl, 1984).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G9K39WS5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G9K39WS5</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\nFrederick III, Elector of Brandenburg was coronated as King Frederick I in Prussia in 1701. The elevation to kingdom status was part of the Treaty of Utrecht and a reward for Prussia's alliance with the Holy Roman Empire during the War of the Spanish Succession. By becoming a king, Frederick I aimed to elevate Prussia's prestige and influence among European powers.§REF§Otto Hintze, Die Hohenzollern und ihr Werk: 1415 - 1915, Reprint d. Originalausg. Berlin, Parey, 1915 / mit e. Geleitw. von W. Knopp u.e. Vorw. von W. Hubatsch. (Hamburg Berlin: Parey, 1987).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/83G7KCF2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 83G7KCF2</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\nThe 18th century saw the rise of Prussia as a major military power under the leadership of Frederick William I and his son, Frederick II, known as Frederick the Great. Frederick William I's focus on military organization and state infrastructure further strengthened Prussia's foundations, while Frederick the Great's military successes, particularly during the Silesian Wars and the Seven Years' War, established Prussia as a leading European power and expanded its territories significantly§REF§Biographie, “Friedrich der Große - Deutsche Biographie.”<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AF7NP8Z9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AF7NP8Z9</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Napoleonic Wars and the Congress of Vienna in 1815 reshaped the European political landscape. The reforms initiated in response to the Napoleonic occupation, including the abolition of serfdom, the reform of the judiciary, and the introduction of municipal self-governance, modernized the Prussian state and society.§REF§Heinz Duchhardt, Der Wiener Kongress: die Neugestaltung Europas 1814/15, Beck’sche Reihe. Wissen 2778 (München: C.H. Beck, 2013).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KQ7ZZYPE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KQ7ZZYPE</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\nThe 19th century was marked by the growing sentiments of nationalism and liberalism across Europe, leading to the revolutions of 1848. In Prussia, these revolutionary currents led to demands for constitutional government and national unification. While the immediate revolutionary fervor was subdued, the seeds for German unification were sown.§REF§Dieter Hein, Die Revolution von 1848/49, 6., durchgesehene und aktualisierte Auflage., C.H. Beck Wissen 2019 (München: C.H. Beck, 2019).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F929SJQT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: F929SJQT</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\nThe unification of Germany was achieved under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian Prime Minister, through a series of diplomatic maneuvers and three decisive wars: the Danish War (1864), the Austro-Prussian War (1866), and the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). The victory in the Franco-Prussian War and the proclamation of the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles in January 1871 marked the culmination of Brandenburg-Prussia's rise from a small principality to the heart of a unified German state.§REF§Helmut Böhme, Die Reichsgründung (Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1967).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TD42N4CS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: TD42N4CS</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": "2024-01-26T14:19:29.747465Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-12T09:42:55.795821Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 704, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-02-20T12:53:04.972772Z", "modified_date": "2024-04-19T13:45:09.910745Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 842, "polity_year_to": 919, "polity": { "id": 798, "name": "de_east_francia", "start_year": 842, "end_year": 919, "long_name": "East Francia", "new_name": "de_east_francia", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "The Treaty of Verdun in 843, which divided the Carolingian Empire among Charlemagne's grandsons, marked the beginning of East Francia as a distinct entity, comprising the lands that are now Germany, along with parts of Austria and Italy.§REF§Carlrichard Brühl et al., Die Geburt zweier Völker: Deutsche und Franzosen (9. - 11. Jahrhundert) (Köln Weimar Wien: Böhlau, 2001).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JNUIX7CZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JNUIX7CZ</b></a>§REF§\r\nLouis the German, one of Charlemagne's grandsons, became the first ruler of East Francia. His reign was characterized by efforts to consolidate his rule and manage the diverse and often fractious duchies within his kingdom. The Carolingian legacy of centralized rule faced challenges in East Francia due to the strong local powers of the dukes and the ongoing threat of external invasions, particularly from the Vikings and Slavic tribes.§REF§Biographie, “Ludwig - Deutsche Biographie.”<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HHAVIEKX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HHAVIEKX</b></a>§REF§\r\nThe Carolingian influence in East Francia was evident in its administrative and cultural institutions, which were inherited from the unified Carolingian Empire. The use of the Carolingian minuscule in writing, the promotion of Christian monasticism, and the Carolingian Renaissance's intellectual and artistic endeavors continued to shape East Francian society.§REF§Carlrichard Brühl et al., Die Geburt zweier Völker: Deutsche und Franzosen (9. - 11. Jahrhundert) (Köln Weimar Wien: Böhlau, 2001).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JNUIX7CZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JNUIX7CZ</b></a>§REF§However, the Carolingian grip on East Francia began to weaken towards the end of the 9th century, as internal divisions, succession disputes, and external pressures strained the kingdom's unity and governance. The death of Louis the Child in 911, the last Carolingian ruler of East Francia, marked the end of Carolingian rule in the region and led to the election of Conrad I of the Franconian dynasty as king, signaling a shift in the political landscape.§REF§Carlrichard Brühl et al., Die Geburt zweier Völker: Deutsche und Franzosen (9. - 11. Jahrhundert) (Köln Weimar Wien: Böhlau, 2001).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JNUIX7CZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JNUIX7CZ</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": "2024-01-26T14:08:05.263763Z", "modified_date": "2024-04-19T13:45:20.761562Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 586, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "While the exact date of origin is unclear, Lewis states that it began in the late eighteenth century. The start of the Jimma Kingdom originated with the capture of Jiren and Hirmata (the great market) by the Diggo clan in the late eighteenth century. “Another group, the Diggo, who lived in Mana, began to extend their domain late in the eighteenth century. Their first move was towards the south, to Jiren, where they conquered the Lalo people. By gaining the Jiren area they also obtained control of the great market and trade center at Hirmata.” §REF§ (Lewis 2001, xv-xvi) Lewis, Herbert S. 2001. Jimma Abba Jifar, an Oromo Monarchy: Ethiopia, 1830-1932. Lawrenceville, New Jersey: The Red Sea Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NRZVWSCD/collection §REF§ \r\n\r\n“The monarchy under study came to an end in 1932 when the Ethiopian government began to administer the area directly from Addis Ababa” §REF§ (Lewis 2001, xv-xvi) Lewis, Herbert S. 2001. Jimma Abba Jifar, an Oromo Monarchy: Ethiopia, 1830-1932. Lawrenceville, New Jersey: The Red Sea Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NRZVWSCD/collection §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-05-28T10:29:32.077325Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1790, "polity_year_to": 1932, "polity": { "id": 636, "name": "et_jimma_k", "start_year": 1790, "end_year": 1932, "long_name": "Kingdom of Jimma", "new_name": "et_jimma_k", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_EAST", "general_description": "The Kingdom of Jimma is said to have formed in the late 18th century by members of the Diggo clan which was a sub-group of the Oromo people. Around the turn of the 19th century, the Diggo captured the southern Ethiopian town of Jiren along with its great market, Hirmata and made this the capital of the kingdom. In 1830, Abba Jifar, became the first monarch of the new established Jimma Abba Jifar Kingdom. The Jimma Abba Jifar was an Islamic Kingdom governed by Shari’a Law. By the late 19th century, the kingdom came under threat by the expanding Abyssinian Kingdom. In order to protect the autonomy of the Kingdom of Jimma, its last ruler Abba Jifar II had to pay tribute to the Abyssinian rulers in exchange for the Kingdom’s independence. In 1932 Emperor Halie Selassie took control of the Kingdom and incorporated the region into the Ethiopian Empire. §REF§ (Lewis 2001, 39-46) Lewis, Herbert S. 2001. Jimma Abba Jifar, an Oromo Monarchy: Ethiopia, 1830-1932. Lawrenceville, New Jersey: The Red Sea Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NRZVWSCD/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NRZVWSCD/collection</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 2, "name": "East Africa", "subregions_list": "Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 597, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Although the Majerteen Sultanate was founded in the second half of the eighteenth century, it only came into prominence in the nineteenth century following the time in power of the famous Boqor Isman Mahamud.” §REF§ (Njoku 2013, 41) Njoku, Raphael C. 2013. The History of Somalia. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library §REF§ “When Italy occupied the two Majerteen Sultanates of Alula and Hobiya in 1926 and exiled the Sultans Boqor Isman Mohamud and Yusif Ali to Mogadishu, many Darood fled to the south.” §REF§ (Mukhtar 2003, 71) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2003. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Mukhtar/titleCreatorYear/items/J8WZB6VI/item-list §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-05-28T11:43:34.175386Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1750, "polity_year_to": 1926, "polity": { "id": 648, "name": "so_majeerteen_sultanate", "start_year": 1750, "end_year": 1926, "long_name": "Majeerteen Sultanate", "new_name": "so_majeerteen_sultanate", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_EAST", "general_description": "The Majeerteen Sultanate was a costal kingdom in the north eastern corner of Somalia. The exact formation date of the Sultanate is unknown with some scholars attesting that it was created in the late seventeenth century, while others acknowledging its origin from the later part of the eighteenth century. The Majeerteen Sultanate was a subgroup of the Darod Clan and had their capital situated at Alula. §REF§ (Njoku 2013, 41-42) Njoku, Raphael C. 2013. The History of Somalia. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library</a> §REF§ The Majeerteen Sultanate was a lucrative kingdom with Omani, Egyptian, Yemeni and Arabian trading alliances. §REF§ (Smith 2021, 73) Smith, Nicholas W.S. 2021. Colonial Chaos in the Southern Red Sea: A History of Violence from 1830 to the Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/K6HVJ7X4/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/K6HVJ7X4/collection</a> §REF§ In 1839, the Majeerteen Sultan, Isman Mahamud, entered into a British trade agreement which also guaranteed safe passage for British ships and crew members who sometimes shipwrecked in the Sultanate’s waters. §REF§ (Lewis 2002, 38) Lewis, Ioan M. 2002. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/UQWUPZBM/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/UQWUPZBM/collection</a> §REF§ Due to the Sultanates subordination to the British crown, the Sultan was able to maintain his kingdom’s freedom up until the later part of the nineteenth century. §REF§ (Njoku 2013, 41-42) Njoku, Raphael C. 2013. The History of Somalia. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library</a> §REF§<br>The decline of the Sultanate centred on a civil war between Sultan Isman Mahamud and his cousin Yusuf Ali. With the help of foreign fighters, Yusuf Ali was able to take control of some Majeerteen territory and created a new Sultanate called Hobyo. During the final years of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the Majeerteen and Hobyo Sultanates became under pressure by European colonial powers, particularly Italy. In 1926, Italian colonial forces occupied both kingdoms creating Italian Somaliland. §REF§ (Njoku 2013, 41-42) Njoku, Raphael C. 2013. The History of Somalia. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library</a> §REF§<br>No information on population sizes were found in the consulted sources.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 2, "name": "East Africa", "subregions_list": "Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 714, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-05-16T13:38:09.835241Z", "modified_date": "2024-05-16T13:38:09.835254Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1066, "polity_year_to": 1153, "polity": { "id": 586, "name": "gb_england_norman", "start_year": 1066, "end_year": 1153, "long_name": "Norman England", "new_name": "gb_england_norman", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-05-16T13:37:49.298359Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 217, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "duration", "polity_year_from": -1200, "polity_year_to": -300, "polity": { "id": 143, "name": "JpJomo6", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300, "long_name": "Japan - Final Jomon", "new_name": "jp_jomon_6", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 21, "name": "Kansai", "subregion": "Northeast Asia", "longitude": "135.762200000000", "latitude": "35.025280000000", "capital_city": "Kyoto", "nga_code": "JP", "fao_country": "Japan", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 14, "name": "Northeast Asia", "subregions_list": "Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 218, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "duration", "polity_year_from": 1185, "polity_year_to": 1333, "polity": { "id": 148, "name": "JpKamak", "start_year": 1185, "end_year": 1333, "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate", "new_name": "jp_kamakura", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kamakura period (1185-1333 CE) begins with the victory of the Minamoto family over the Taira clan in the Gempei War. In 1192 CE, Minamoto military victory received official recognition when Minatomo no Yoritomo was appointed shogun (great general) by the emperor. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 35) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Although the emperor in Kyoto remained the nominal ruler, as the first shogun, Yoritomo managed to avoid court influence and intrigues by locating his base of operations close to his traditional support base in Kamakura, near present day Tokyo, from which the period takes its name. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 3) William E. Deal. 2005. <i>Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 35) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The Kamakura Shogunate marks the beginning of Japan's medieval era, which saw the rise of warrior rule combined with a feudal system of landholding and administration. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 3) William E. Deal. 2005. <i>Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ While the borders to the east, west and south remained roughly constant, the exact extent of the polity's territory to the north was not rigidly defined. §REF§ (Batten 1999, 173-74) Bruce Batten. 1999. 'Frontiers and Boundaries of Pre-Modern Japan'. <i>Journal of Historical Geography</i> 25 (2): 166-82. §REF§ <br>The 'peak' of the Kamakura Shogunate could be considered to coincide with the reign of the Hōjō regent Hōjō Yasutoki (r. 1224-1242 CE), who was responsible for institutionalizing the way the <i>bakufu</i> (military government) mediated disputes and governed. §REF§ (Mass 2008, 74) Jeffrey P. Mass. 2008. 'The Kamakura Bakufu', in <i>The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 3: Medieval Japan</i>, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 46-88. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The period ends in 1333 CE with the overthrow of the shogunate and the restoration of the Emperor Go-Daigo. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 4) William E. Deal. 2005. <i>Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The shogunate, also known as the <i>bakufu</i> (literally 'tent headquarters'), issued in a new period of military governance. However, many of the older institutions inherited from the Heian period persisted, albeit in weakened form. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 35) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The degree to which the imperial court lost its power is still somewhat uncertain, and some scholars have argued that there was more cooperation between the court and shogunate than previously thought. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 35-36) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The central political relationship now became that between the lord and his vassals: loyalty, either willing or enforced, formed the basis of governance. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 88) William E. Deal. 2005. <i>Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The shogun rewarded loyalty with grants of estates and offices. Vassals collected taxes but retained a portion, depleting the revenue of the central government. Warriors became the political, social and economic elite, drawing their economic power from their landholdings. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 2, 4) William E. Deal. 2005. <i>Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>Echoing developments in the preceding Heian period, when imperial power was tempered by that of powerful regents, the shogun became functionally subordinate to hereditary regents from the Hōjō family (who lacked the necessary social rank to become shoguns in their own right) after the death of Yoritomo in 1199. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 4-5) William E. Deal. 2005. <i>Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ In 1274 and 1281 CE, there were two failed Mongol invasions; this external threat may have helped to mute any internal dissent until the restoration of Emperor Go-Daigo. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 37-38) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ <br>The historian William Wayne Farris gives an estimate of between five and six million for the population of the Kamakura Shogunate. §REF§ (Farris 2006, 9, 100) William Wayne Farris. 2006. <i>Japan's Medieval Population: Famine, Fertility, and Warfare in a Transformative Age</i>. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 21, "name": "Kansai", "subregion": "Northeast Asia", "longitude": "135.762200000000", "latitude": "35.025280000000", "capital_city": "Kyoto", "nga_code": "JP", "fao_country": "Japan", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 14, "name": "Northeast Asia", "subregions_list": "Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 123, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "\"The kings with whom the Gupta golden age was to be identfiied arose from such modest origins that the founder of the ruling line appears to have adopted the name of the Mauryan founder, Chandragupta, when he began his own reign in 320 CE, and married a daughter of the ancient Licchavi clan.\"§REF§(Stein 2010, 95) Burton Stein. 2010. <i>A History of India</i>. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.§REF§ \"Skandagupta died around 467, and there was a long drawn-out war of succession between his sons and the sons of his half-brother, Purugupta. The winner of this war was Budhagupta, the son of Purugupta and the last of the great Gupta rulers. During his long reign (467 to 497) the empire remained more or less intact, but the war of succession had obviously sapped its vitality. The successors of Budhagupta, his brother Narasimha and Narasimha's son and grandson, who ruled until about 570, controlled only small parts of the empire. In east Bengal a King Vainyagupta is mentioned in an inscription of 507 and in the west one Bhanugupta left an inscription of 510. It is not known whether these rulers were related to the Gupta dynasty or not, but they were obviously independent of the Guptas of Magadha whose power declined very rapidly.//\"The Huns must have noted this decline as they attacked India once more under their leader, Toramana. They conquered large parts of northwestern India up to Gwalior and Malwa. In 510 they clashed with Bhanugupta's army at Eran (Madhya Pradesh). Bhanugupta's general, Goparaja, lost his life in this battle. Coins provide evidence for the fact that Toramana controlled the Panjab, Kashmir, Rajasthan and presumably also the western part of what is now Uttar Pradesh. About 515 Toramana's son, Mihirakula, succeeded his father and established his capital at Sakala (Sialkot). [...] The Huns destroyed what was left of the Gupta empire in the northwest and the centrifugal forces were set free. They destroyed the cities and trading centres of northern India.\"§REF§(Kulke & Rothermund 1998, 90-91) Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund. 1998. <i>A History of India</i>. London: Routledge.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-17T11:10:44.070148Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "duration", "polity_year_from": 320, "polity_year_to": 550, "polity": { "id": 388, "name": "InGupta", "start_year": 320, "end_year": 550, "long_name": "Gupta Empire", "new_name": "in_gupta_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Gupta polity ran from 320-514 CE, with its peak considered to be around 400 CE during the reign of Skanda-Gupta. §REF§ (Keay 2010, 146) Keay, John. 2010. India: A History. New Updated Edition. London: HarperPress. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X</a>. §REF§ <br>At its largest, the Gupta empire spanned up to 900,000 square kilometres across north and south India, which it had full and direct control over, as well as southern India indirectly. The cities of Ujjain and Pataliputra seem to have both served as capital cities. While the total population is not known, the largest settlement, Pataliputra, is thought to have had a population of 150,000 people in 360 CE. §REF§ (Agrawal 1989) §REF§ , Kulke and Rothermund (2004) §REF§ (Kulke and Rothermund 2004) §REF§ and Stein (2010) §REF§ (Stein 2010) §REF§ .<br><br/>Trade flourished under the Gupta Empire both internally across India as well as through overseas trading routes with China and the Roman Empire. Among their exports were pearls, gems, diamonds and precious metals. §REF§ (Keay 2010, 146) Keay, John. 2010. India: A History. New Updated Edition. London: HarperPress. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X</a>. §REF§ <br>Common religions practiced in this polity included Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism from both the Vaisnava and Saiva Traditions, though none claimed to be the exclusive or ‘correct’ religion. §REF§ (Bisschop 2010, 478) Bisschop, Peter. 2010. “Saivism in the Gupta-Vakataka Age.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 20 (4):477-88.Seshat URL: .<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/M52PA8IW/itemKey/BHH5W2PV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/M52PA8IW/itemKey/BHH5W2PV</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-17T11:10:49.230416Z", "home_nga": { "id": 14, "name": "Middle Ganga", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "82.700000000000", "latitude": "25.750000000000", "capital_city": "Jaunpur", "nga_code": "UTPR", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 65, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }