Polity Degree Of Centralization List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Degrees of Centralization.
GET /api/general/polity-degree-of-centralizations/
{ "count": 498, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/general/polity-degree-of-centralizations/?page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 505, "year_from": 842, "year_to": 880, "description": "The central government exerted some control over military matters and international relations, but regional rulers enjoyed significant autonomy in governing their territories. This period saw the Carolingian empire's gradual fragmentation, where loyalty to the central authority was often nominal, and regional rulers held the real power in their lands.§REF§Carlrichard Brühl et al., Die Geburt zweier Völker: Deutsche und Franzosen (9. - 11. Jahrhundert) (Köln Weimar Wien: Böhlau, 2001).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JNUIX7CZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JNUIX7CZ</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-03-09T16:31:20.835696Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-09T16:31:20.835709Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "loose", "polity": { "id": 798, "name": "de_east_francia", "start_year": 842, "end_year": 919, "long_name": "East Francia", "new_name": "de_east_francia", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "The Treaty of Verdun in 843, which divided the Carolingian Empire among Charlemagne's grandsons, marked the beginning of East Francia as a distinct entity, comprising the lands that are now Germany, along with parts of Austria and Italy.§REF§Carlrichard Brühl et al., Die Geburt zweier Völker: Deutsche und Franzosen (9. - 11. Jahrhundert) (Köln Weimar Wien: Böhlau, 2001).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JNUIX7CZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JNUIX7CZ</b></a>§REF§\r\nLouis the German, one of Charlemagne's grandsons, became the first ruler of East Francia. His reign was characterized by efforts to consolidate his rule and manage the diverse and often fractious duchies within his kingdom. The Carolingian legacy of centralized rule faced challenges in East Francia due to the strong local powers of the dukes and the ongoing threat of external invasions, particularly from the Vikings and Slavic tribes.§REF§Biographie, “Ludwig - Deutsche Biographie.”<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HHAVIEKX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HHAVIEKX</b></a>§REF§\r\nThe Carolingian influence in East Francia was evident in its administrative and cultural institutions, which were inherited from the unified Carolingian Empire. The use of the Carolingian minuscule in writing, the promotion of Christian monasticism, and the Carolingian Renaissance's intellectual and artistic endeavors continued to shape East Francian society.§REF§Carlrichard Brühl et al., Die Geburt zweier Völker: Deutsche und Franzosen (9. - 11. Jahrhundert) (Köln Weimar Wien: Böhlau, 2001).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JNUIX7CZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JNUIX7CZ</b></a>§REF§However, the Carolingian grip on East Francia began to weaken towards the end of the 9th century, as internal divisions, succession disputes, and external pressures strained the kingdom's unity and governance. The death of Louis the Child in 911, the last Carolingian ruler of East Francia, marked the end of Carolingian rule in the region and led to the election of Conrad I of the Franconian dynasty as king, signaling a shift in the political landscape.§REF§Carlrichard Brühl et al., Die Geburt zweier Völker: Deutsche und Franzosen (9. - 11. Jahrhundert) (Köln Weimar Wien: Böhlau, 2001).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JNUIX7CZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JNUIX7CZ</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": "2024-01-26T14:08:05.263763Z", "modified_date": "2024-04-19T13:45:20.761562Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 506, "year_from": 880, "year_to": 911, "description": "East Francia moved towards a more \"confederated state\", particularly during the reign of Arnulf of Carinthia. While regional dukes and nobles still held considerable power, there was a concerted effort by the central authority to assert greater control over the realm. This period saw the establishment of more hereditary rule and the beginnings of the feudal system, where the central authority recognized the hereditary rights of regional lords in exchange for military and political support. The central government had some influence over regional taxation and governance, but regions enjoyed a high degree of autonomy.§REF§Carlrichard Brühl et al., Die Geburt zweier Völker: Deutsche und Franzosen (9. - 11. Jahrhundert) (Köln Weimar Wien: Böhlau, 2001).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JNUIX7CZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JNUIX7CZ</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-03-09T16:32:45.923506Z", "modified_date": "2024-04-19T13:40:38.787645Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "confederated state", "polity": { "id": 798, "name": "de_east_francia", "start_year": 842, "end_year": 919, "long_name": "East Francia", "new_name": "de_east_francia", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "The Treaty of Verdun in 843, which divided the Carolingian Empire among Charlemagne's grandsons, marked the beginning of East Francia as a distinct entity, comprising the lands that are now Germany, along with parts of Austria and Italy.§REF§Carlrichard Brühl et al., Die Geburt zweier Völker: Deutsche und Franzosen (9. - 11. Jahrhundert) (Köln Weimar Wien: Böhlau, 2001).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JNUIX7CZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JNUIX7CZ</b></a>§REF§\r\nLouis the German, one of Charlemagne's grandsons, became the first ruler of East Francia. His reign was characterized by efforts to consolidate his rule and manage the diverse and often fractious duchies within his kingdom. The Carolingian legacy of centralized rule faced challenges in East Francia due to the strong local powers of the dukes and the ongoing threat of external invasions, particularly from the Vikings and Slavic tribes.§REF§Biographie, “Ludwig - Deutsche Biographie.”<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HHAVIEKX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HHAVIEKX</b></a>§REF§\r\nThe Carolingian influence in East Francia was evident in its administrative and cultural institutions, which were inherited from the unified Carolingian Empire. The use of the Carolingian minuscule in writing, the promotion of Christian monasticism, and the Carolingian Renaissance's intellectual and artistic endeavors continued to shape East Francian society.§REF§Carlrichard Brühl et al., Die Geburt zweier Völker: Deutsche und Franzosen (9. - 11. Jahrhundert) (Köln Weimar Wien: Böhlau, 2001).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JNUIX7CZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JNUIX7CZ</b></a>§REF§However, the Carolingian grip on East Francia began to weaken towards the end of the 9th century, as internal divisions, succession disputes, and external pressures strained the kingdom's unity and governance. The death of Louis the Child in 911, the last Carolingian ruler of East Francia, marked the end of Carolingian rule in the region and led to the election of Conrad I of the Franconian dynasty as king, signaling a shift in the political landscape.§REF§Carlrichard Brühl et al., Die Geburt zweier Völker: Deutsche und Franzosen (9. - 11. Jahrhundert) (Köln Weimar Wien: Böhlau, 2001).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JNUIX7CZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JNUIX7CZ</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": "2024-01-26T14:08:05.263763Z", "modified_date": "2024-04-19T13:45:20.761562Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 498, "year_from": 966, "year_to": 1138, "description": "During Mieszko I's reign and continuing through the rule of Bolesław III Wrymouth, Poland could be considered a unitary state evidenced by the adoption of Christianity, the establishment of a centralized church structure, and the consolidation of territories under a central authority.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-02-25T10:57:30.466107Z", "modified_date": "2024-02-25T11:07:55.998652Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "unitary state", "polity": { "id": 317, "name": "PlPoliK", "start_year": 963, "end_year": 1138, "long_name": "Polish Kingdom - Piast Dynasty", "new_name": "pl_piast_dyn_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kingdom of Poland, was a significant medieval polity in Central Europe, primarily encompassing the territory of modern-day Poland. Initially a fragmented region, Poland began to coalesce into a more unified entity under the Piast dynasty, which emerged in the late 10th century. Mieszko I, recognized as the first ruler of Poland, adopted Christianity in 966, aligning the kingdom more closely with Western Europe.§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LUJ3NYJU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU</b></a>§REF§\r\nUnder the Piast dynasty, Poland experienced periods of expansion and consolidation, extending its influence over neighboring Slavic tribes and territories. The reign of Bolesław I the Brave (992-1025) was notable for its military campaigns and the establishment of Poland's first archbishopric in Gniezno, affirming Poland's status within Christendom.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</b></a>§REF§The kingdom faced challenges, including internal divisions, succession disputes, and external threats from the Holy Roman Empire, the Kievan Rus', and later, the Teutonic Knights. Despite these challenges, the Piast rulers managed to maintain a degree of autonomy.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</b></a>§REF§\r\nThe fragmentation period (1138-1320) saw Poland divided into several duchies, weakening central authority and leading to increased German influence in some regions. This period was characterized by internal strife and the gradual erosion of the Piast dynasty's power.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-04-05T10:45:51.367873Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 503, "year_from": 1000, "year_to": 1150, "description": "The formation of the Hungarian state under the leadership of Árpád and his successors involved the unification of various Magyar tribes and the establishment of a Christian monarchy under Stephen I. The governance structure was still evolving, with significant autonomy retained by tribal leaders and the early nobility.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BBKM3AR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-03-03T20:02:23.010496Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-03T20:02:23.010512Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "loose", "polity": { "id": 810, "name": "hu_arpad_dyn", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1301, "long_name": "Hungary Kingdom - Árpád Dynasty", "new_name": "hu_arpad_dyn", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "The Árpád dynasty played a key role in forming the Kingdom of Hungary into an important Christian state in medieval Europe. This period began with Saint Stephen I's coronation, signifying the transition from a collection of Magyar tribes to a unified Christian monarchy. The Magyars, who settled in the Carpathian Basin at the end of the 9th century, were a group of nomadic tribes known for their raids across Europe. These tribes were eventually consolidated into a single nation, adopting Christianity as the central religion. This transformation laid the foundations for the modern Hungarian state, encompassing areas that today include Austria, Croatia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, and Slovenia.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BBKM3AR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR</b></a>§REF§The legal and administrative systems of Hungary during this period were codified in the \"laws of the king,\"§REF§László Kontler, Millennium in Central Europe: A History of Hungary (Budapest: Atlantisz, 1999).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CSSN8HUW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CSSN8HUW</b></a>§REF§ which sought to integrate Christian principles with existing tribal customs. Latin was used for administrative and religious purposes, while various dialects were spoken among the populace. The common customs and laws varied significantly across the realm.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BBKM3AR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR</b></a>§REF§Roman Catholicism, served as the cornerstone of the kingdom's identity, with the Hungarian monarchs championing the faith and the construction of monumental religious buildings. This alliance with the Roman Catholic Church was instrumental in shaping the kingdom politically and culturally and made it a part of the Christian Kingdoms in central Europe. This alliance also brought conflict at times with the still pagan tribal people of the Kingdom.§REF§Gyula Kristó, Magyarország története 895-1301, Osiris tankönyvek (Budapest: Osiris kiadó, 2003).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4YU2XJ8C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4YU2XJ8C</b></a>§REF§\r\nHungary's history during the Árpád dynasty was marked by internal strife among the nobility and external threats from invaders such as the Mongols, who devastated the kingdom in 1241.§REF§Peter Jackson, The Mongols and the West, 1221-1410, The medieval world (Harlow, England ; New York: Pearson Longman, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GNAFQ557\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GNAFQ557</b></a>§REF§ The Árpád dynasty's decline began in the late 13th century, leading to a period of interregnum and the eventual rise of the Angevin dynasty.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BBKM3AR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": "2024-03-01T11:39:00.642109Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-03T20:47:24.766769Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 502, "year_from": 1139, "year_to": 1320, "description": "After the death of Bolesław III Wrymouth in 1138, the Kingdom of Poland entered a period of feudal fragmentation that lasted for nearly two centuries.§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LUJ3NYJU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-02-28T15:02:05.551632Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-25T15:51:34.255115Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "none", "polity": { "id": 809, "name": "pl_piast_dyn_2", "start_year": 1139, "end_year": 1382, "long_name": "Polish Kingdom - Piast Dynasty Fragmented Period", "new_name": "pl_piast_dyn_2", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "When Bolesław III Wrymouth died on 28 October 1138, he was aware of the potential for conflict among his sons and devised a testament aiming to prevent the fragmentation of the kingdom. His will, known as the Testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LUJ3NYJU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU</b></a>§REF§, divided Poland among his sons, granting them hereditary duchies while trying to maintain some level of unity under the senioral principle. This principle established that the eldest member of the dynasty, holding the Seniorate Province with Kraków as its capital, would have a primacy over the other dukes and the right to be called the High Duke of Poland. The \"Senioral Principle\" was soon broken, leading to a period of nearly 200 years of disintegration known as feudal fragmentation which divided the Polish state into several semi-independent principalities without a single ruler governed by various branches of the Piast dynasty.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</b></a>§REF§ \r\nThe reunification of Poland under Władysław I in 14th century marked the end of fragmentation. His son, Casimir III the Great (1333-1370) strengthened royal authority. Casimir's reign, devoid of major external conflicts, allowed for significant internal development, including the founding of the University of Krakow in 1364, one of the oldest universities in Europe.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</b></a>§REF§\r\nThe end of the Piast dynasty in 1370, with the death of Casimir III, led to the initiation of the Angevin and later Jagiellonian dynasties, under which Poland entered into a union with Lithuania.§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LUJ3NYJU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "I expanded the end date of this polity to include the last personal union between Hungary and Poland during Louis I of Hungary's reign.", "created_date": "2024-02-28T14:45:23.434662Z", "modified_date": "2024-06-12T12:00:04.748967Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 25, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 420, "year_from": 1180, "year_to": 1428, "description": "“Relationships between the village and palace hierarchies prior to 1320 - under the first Benin dynasty - were maintained and reinforced through the mechanism of minimal allegiance and redistributive tribute. […] The emergence of the second dynasty in c. 1320-1347 did not, initially at least, fundamentally alter the political, social, and / or economic balance in the state.” §REF§Sargent, R. A. (1986). From A Redistribution to an Imperial Social Formation: Benin c.1293-1536. Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne Des Études Africaines, 20(3), 402–427: 406–407. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/AUEZSTBR/collection§REF§ “Oba Ewedo (c. 1374-1401) took major initiatives to establish a more hierarchical central administration and remove the monarchy from Uzama domination. Ewedo established an autonomous palace protected by a loyal standing army and maintained by an independent tribute network (Egharevba 1968, 9-10). The ability of the Oba to demand and receive tribute from the village Onojie, thus circumventing Uzama domination, was apparently based upon the development of coercive authority. This newfound capability enabled the Oba to restrict the authority and prestige of the Uzama and impose the new central administration forcefully. The Uzama Nihinron, naturally enough, objected violently, but the coercive power of the monarchy forced ultimate acquiescence (Egharevba 1968, 10). The creation of a drastically altered and expanded political hierarchy in c. 1374- 1401 marked a significant change in the economic and social development of Benin and concomitantly established the Oba as paramount authority in the state. However, ‘... as the state organization became more centralized it began to use the concept of territorial power ... the prestige of the sovereign never completely effaced the tribopatriarchal authority. At most, the kingship took the form of a superimposed bureaucracy which nonetheless respected the structure of rural life (Coquery-Vidrovitch 1976, 92).’” §REF§Sargent, R. A. (1986). From A Redistribution to an Imperial Social Formation: Benin c.1293-1536. Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne Des Études Africaines, 20(3), 402–427: 408. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/AUEZSTBR/collection§REF§ Oba Ewuare built on the work started by Oba Eweko (c. 1374–1401) to move the Benin Empire towards increased centralization. “Oba Ewuare seems to have transformed Benin from a segmentary tribute paying formation into a national trading structure. The incorporation of the majority of Edo-speaking people in the Benin political framework established a national character for the state, a polity ruled by a dynasty that was becoming progressively Edo-speaking. The dominant mode of production in the new social formation was still the village Otu system, and tribute remained one of the principle supports for the national elite. However, under Oba Ewuare (c. 1428-1455), commercial revenues and levies were appropriated at an increased rate. According to Webster's typology for Africa, the basis of primary support for the elite determined the classification of the social formation (1982, 2). The concern for trade, the management of commercial enterprise, and the control of major trade routes contributed to the expansion of trade and commerce. This development provided the opportunity for elite support that may have been greater in value than that extracted from allegiance, supportive, and redistributive tribute. It seems, therefore, that Oba Ewuare transformed Benin from a tribute-based social formation to a national trading state.” §REF§Sargent, R. A. (1986). From A Redistribution to an Imperial Social Formation: Benin c.1293-1536. Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne Des Études Africaines, 20(3), 402–427: 414. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/AUEZSTBR/collection§REF§ “In fact, the transformation of the segmentary redistributive social formation into a highly exploitative centralised administration had taken only three generations. From about 1374 to 1455, therefore, Benin had experienced a rather dramatic shift toward centralised coercive state exploitation, clear evidence of a transformation from a redistributive social formation to a highly organised tribute paying structure. Real tribute paying social formations suggest a dual economy - enclave and hinterland - and the process of underdeveloping the hinterland begins. The next generation (c. 1455-1482) in the development of this centralised exploitative political structure was even more dramatic than all previous generations combined. The reign of Oba Ewuare witnessed a drastic increase in the state bureaucracy; Ewuare appointed no less than seventeen new officials to the palace administration (Egharevba 1960, 78-79). Ewuare went even further in his reorganisation of the state by annexing the Ishan chiefdoms and incorporating them as vassal tributary village clusters (Okojie 1960, 209; Miller 1983).” §REF§Sargent, R. A. (1986). From A Redistribution to an Imperial Social Formation: Benin c.1293-1536. Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne Des Études Africaines, 20(3), 402–427: 412. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/AUEZSTBR/collection§REF§ “It is useful to distinguish what we may call the Benin kingdom from the outlying territories which at various times accepted the Oba’s suzerainty. […] Generally speaking, the Benin kingdom may be defined as the area within which the Oba was recognized as the sole human arbiter of life and death. Within it no one could be put to death without his consent, and any person accused of a capital offence had to be brought before his court.” §REF§Bradbury, R. E. (1967). The Kingdom of Benin. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 1–35). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 3. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z8DJIKP8/collection§REF§ “From about 1293 to 1536, Benin evolved from a segmentary redistributive chiefdom to a centralised imperial power.” §REF§Sargent, R. A. (1986). From A Redistribution to an Imperial Social Formation: Benin c.1293-1536. Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne Des Études Africaines, 20(3), 402–427: 402. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/AUEZSTBR/collection§REF§ “It is possible to see not only a major evolution in the political and economic structures of Benin from about 1293 to 1536 but also major changes in power relations, social structures, and economic organisation. The state had evolved from a segmentary redistributive social formation to a centralised tributary state. Subsequent economic and political policy further transformed the society into a major regional partner in long distance trade, into a conquest state, and ultimately into an imperial trading formation.” §REF§Sargent, R. A. (1986). From A Redistribution to an Imperial Social Formation: Benin c.1293-1536. Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne Des Études Africaines, 20(3), 402–427: 421–422. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/AUEZSTBR/collection§REF§ “In the late fifteenth century Benin was a well-established state with a large army conducting long campaigns far afield. It was already approaching the peak of its power and prosperity. By the late sixteenth century its frontiers had reached out westwards along the coast to beyond Lagos, north-west through the country of the Ekiti Yoruba to Ottun, where there was a boundary with Oyo, and eastwards to the Niger. Thus, it embraced considerable populations of eastern Yoruba and western Ibo. The former largely retained their characteristically Yoruba political systems. Their titles, regalia, and ceremonial forms were influenced by Benin, but these were matters of style rather than structure. Within a limited framework of controls exercised by the Oba—tribute, assistance in war, facilities for Edo traders—they enjoyed internal autonomy. Many western Ibo groups developed into small centralized states in which Benin-type institutions, copied with varying degrees of similitude, were superimposed on and accommodated to local social forms. Most of their chiefs (obi) accepted the Oba’s suzerainty, but others, some of them founded by dissident groups from Benin itself, lay beyond his control.” §REF§Bradbury, R. E. (1967). The Kingdom of Benin. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 1–35). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 5. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z8DJIKP8/collection§REF§ “The last three centuries of Benin’s independence saw a gradual shrinking of the area from which its government could enforce delivery of tribute and military service and secure safe passage for Benin traders, though this decline was by no means uninterrupted. During the eighteenth century there were many campaigns aimed at maintaining control over the western Ibo area. In Osemwende’s reign, in the early nineteenth century, control over the Ekiti Yoruba to the north was reconsolidated. Throughout the nineteenth century this latter area was the most important, though not the only, hinterland for Benin traders.” §REF§Bradbury, R. E. (1967). The Kingdom of Benin. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 1–35). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 4. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z8DJIKP8/collection§REF§ “Benin warriors played some part in the Ekiti wars, but on a freelance basis; they took advantage of the confused situation to raid for slaves and loot. They sent gifts to the Oba, for they were dependent on the Benin route for their supplies. In return he occasionally dispatched reinforcements to help them, but his control over them was minimal. In the 1880s the official Benin army, under the Ezɔmɔ, was occupied subduing rebellious villages on the very north-west borders of the kingdom itself, no more than fifty miles from the capital.” §REF§Bradbury, R. E. (1967). The Kingdom of Benin. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 1–35). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 7. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z8DJIKP8/collection§REF§ “Their territories consisted only of the villages or hamlets in which they lived with, in some cases, one or more villages farther afield; but in the internal affairs of these territories the Oba ought not to interfere. Their inhabitants were subjects of the Uzama rather than of the Oba. Freemen of Uzebu, for example, were eviɛn-Ezɔmɔ rather than eviɛn-Ɔba.” §REF§Bradbury, R. E. (1967). The Kingdom of Benin. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 1–35). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 15. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z8DJIKP8/collection§REF§ “Thus, it becomes necessary to differentiate between the \"state\" of Benin and Benin proper.' For the state, in fact, consisted of many \"independent communities\" which \"were seldom at peace,\" which enjoyed \"very full powers of local government,\" and which \"were left pretty much alone to work out their own destinies\". [I9] The peoples of the territory between Bonny and Lagos constituted a \"state,\" only insofar as their tribute and services were rendered to the Oba of Benin.” §REF§Graham, J. D. (1965). The Slave Trade, Depopulation and Human Sacrifice in Benin History: The General Approach. Cahiers d’Études Africaines, 5(18), 317–334: 320. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/4AS9CVZH/collection§REF§ “But, since the \"state\" of Benin was thoroughly decentralized, it existed only insofar as outlying provinces paid their due tribute to the Oba. The fluid situation in which the Benin \"state\" existed defies precise definition of the extent of that state”. §REF§Graham, J. D. (1965). The Slave Trade, Depopulation and Human Sacrifice in Benin History: The General Approach. Cahiers d’Études Africaines, 5(18), 317–334: 331. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/4AS9CVZH/collection§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "loose", "polity": { "id": 672, "name": "ni_benin_emp", "start_year": 1140, "end_year": 1897, "long_name": "Benin Empire", "new_name": "ni_benin_emp", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 484, "year_from": 1198, "year_to": 1253, "description": "The Přemyslid rulers worked to centralize authority but faced challenges from the powerful nobility and the fragmented nature of medieval governance up until the rule of Ottokar II who significantly increased efforts of centralisation.§REF§Jörg K. Hoensch, Geschichte Böhmens: von der slavischen Landnahme bis zur Gegenwart.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/APL977ZI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: APL977ZI</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-02-07T12:37:30.884964Z", "modified_date": "2024-04-24T12:32:56.857385Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "confederated state", "polity": { "id": 598, "name": "cz_bohemian_k_1", "start_year": 1198, "end_year": 1309, "long_name": "Kingdom of Bohemia - Přemyslid Dynasty", "new_name": "cz_bohemian_k_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kingdom of Bohemia under the Přemyslid dynasty from 1198 to 1309 CE was a period marked by significant development, territorial expansion, and the consolidation of royal power, which laid the foundational structures of the Bohemian state and its integration into the broader European medieval political landscape. This era witnessed the transformation of Bohemia from a duchy into a kingdom, with Prague emerging as a significant cultural and political center in Central Europe.§REF§Jaroslav Pánek and Oldřich Tůma, A History of the Czech Lands (Prague: Karolinum Press, 2009).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5MFK58ZP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5MFK58ZP</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe formal recognition of Bohemia as a kingdom came in 1198, when Duke Ottokar I assumed the title of King, a status confirmed by the Holy Roman Emperor. This elevation reflected not only the growing power and prestige of the Přemyslid rulers but also the strategic importance of Bohemia within the Holy Roman Empire.§REF§Jörg K. Hoensch, Geschichte Böhmens: von der slavischen Landnahme bis zur Gegenwart.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/APL977ZI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: APL977ZI</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Přemyslid dynasty, which traced its origins back to the 9th century, was instrumental in shaping the identity and political structures of the Bohemian state.§REF§Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Neue Deutsche Biographie.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2B7YCXT3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2B7YCXT3</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nOne of the most notable rulers of this period was Ottokar II (1253-1278), known as Ottokar the Great. His reign was characterized by ambitious territorial expansion, extending Bohemian control over adjacent regions, including Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, thereby significantly enhancing the kingdom's power and influence in Central Europe. Ottokar II's efforts to consolidate his rule and expand his territory brought him into conflict with other regional powers and the Holy Roman Emperor, leading to his eventual defeat and death at the Battle of Marchfeld in 1278.§REF§Hoensch, Přemysl Otakar II. von Böhmen.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LVNSK3MW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LVNSK3MW</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nDespite the dynastic challenges and occasional conflicts with the Holy Roman Empire, the Přemyslid dynasty succeeded in maintaining Bohemia's sovereignty and distinct identity within the imperial framework. The legal codifications and administrative reforms of this period laid the groundwork for the kingdom's future development.\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe end of the Přemyslid dynasty came in 1306, following the assassination of Wenceslaus III. The subsequent period saw the rise of the Luxembourg dynasty, which would continue to shape the kingdom's trajectory in the future.§REF§Hirschbiegel, Höfe und Residenzen im spätmittelalterlichen Reich.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R4DMTD9L\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: R4DMTD9L</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-02-06T12:13:29.036347Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 504, "year_from": 1222, "year_to": 1301, "description": "The issuance of the Golden Bull by Andrew II marked a significant shift towards a \"confederated state\" , explicitly limiting the power of the monarchy in favor of greater rights and autonomy for the nobility.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BBKM3AR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-03-03T20:03:42.893615Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-03T20:03:42.893629Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "confederated state", "polity": { "id": 810, "name": "hu_arpad_dyn", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1301, "long_name": "Hungary Kingdom - Árpád Dynasty", "new_name": "hu_arpad_dyn", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "The Árpád dynasty played a key role in forming the Kingdom of Hungary into an important Christian state in medieval Europe. This period began with Saint Stephen I's coronation, signifying the transition from a collection of Magyar tribes to a unified Christian monarchy. The Magyars, who settled in the Carpathian Basin at the end of the 9th century, were a group of nomadic tribes known for their raids across Europe. These tribes were eventually consolidated into a single nation, adopting Christianity as the central religion. This transformation laid the foundations for the modern Hungarian state, encompassing areas that today include Austria, Croatia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, and Slovenia.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BBKM3AR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR</b></a>§REF§The legal and administrative systems of Hungary during this period were codified in the \"laws of the king,\"§REF§László Kontler, Millennium in Central Europe: A History of Hungary (Budapest: Atlantisz, 1999).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CSSN8HUW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CSSN8HUW</b></a>§REF§ which sought to integrate Christian principles with existing tribal customs. Latin was used for administrative and religious purposes, while various dialects were spoken among the populace. The common customs and laws varied significantly across the realm.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BBKM3AR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR</b></a>§REF§Roman Catholicism, served as the cornerstone of the kingdom's identity, with the Hungarian monarchs championing the faith and the construction of monumental religious buildings. This alliance with the Roman Catholic Church was instrumental in shaping the kingdom politically and culturally and made it a part of the Christian Kingdoms in central Europe. This alliance also brought conflict at times with the still pagan tribal people of the Kingdom.§REF§Gyula Kristó, Magyarország története 895-1301, Osiris tankönyvek (Budapest: Osiris kiadó, 2003).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4YU2XJ8C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4YU2XJ8C</b></a>§REF§\r\nHungary's history during the Árpád dynasty was marked by internal strife among the nobility and external threats from invaders such as the Mongols, who devastated the kingdom in 1241.§REF§Peter Jackson, The Mongols and the West, 1221-1410, The medieval world (Harlow, England ; New York: Pearson Longman, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GNAFQ557\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GNAFQ557</b></a>§REF§ The Árpád dynasty's decline began in the late 13th century, leading to a period of interregnum and the eventual rise of the Angevin dynasty.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BBKM3AR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": "2024-03-01T11:39:00.642109Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-03T20:47:24.766769Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 501, "year_from": 1320, "year_to": 1370, "description": "With the coronation of Władysław I as king in 1320 and the subsequent reign of Casimir III the Great, Poland once again moved toward the structure of a unitary state. Casimir III's made extensive reforms and centralization efforts, including legal and administrative reforms.§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LUJ3NYJU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-02-25T11:01:29.418336Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-25T15:42:53.919490Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "unitary state", "polity": { "id": 809, "name": "pl_piast_dyn_2", "start_year": 1139, "end_year": 1382, "long_name": "Polish Kingdom - Piast Dynasty Fragmented Period", "new_name": "pl_piast_dyn_2", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "When Bolesław III Wrymouth died on 28 October 1138, he was aware of the potential for conflict among his sons and devised a testament aiming to prevent the fragmentation of the kingdom. His will, known as the Testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LUJ3NYJU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU</b></a>§REF§, divided Poland among his sons, granting them hereditary duchies while trying to maintain some level of unity under the senioral principle. This principle established that the eldest member of the dynasty, holding the Seniorate Province with Kraków as its capital, would have a primacy over the other dukes and the right to be called the High Duke of Poland. The \"Senioral Principle\" was soon broken, leading to a period of nearly 200 years of disintegration known as feudal fragmentation which divided the Polish state into several semi-independent principalities without a single ruler governed by various branches of the Piast dynasty.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</b></a>§REF§ \r\nThe reunification of Poland under Władysław I in 14th century marked the end of fragmentation. His son, Casimir III the Great (1333-1370) strengthened royal authority. Casimir's reign, devoid of major external conflicts, allowed for significant internal development, including the founding of the University of Krakow in 1364, one of the oldest universities in Europe.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</b></a>§REF§\r\nThe end of the Piast dynasty in 1370, with the death of Casimir III, led to the initiation of the Angevin and later Jagiellonian dynasties, under which Poland entered into a union with Lithuania.§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LUJ3NYJU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "I expanded the end date of this polity to include the last personal union between Hungary and Poland during Louis I of Hungary's reign.", "created_date": "2024-02-28T14:45:23.434662Z", "modified_date": "2024-06-12T12:00:04.748967Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 25, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 418, "year_from": 1390, "year_to": 1529, "description": "This quote has a date range of around 1530 CE- 1897 CE as indicated by Orent. “Each of these clans was allowed to maintain its autonomy with its own ruler (referred to as tato or king in the legends) who was responsible to the King of Kafa.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 269) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 650, "name": "et_kaffa_k", "start_year": 1390, "end_year": 1897, "long_name": "Kingdom of Kaffa", "new_name": "et_kaffa_k", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_EAST", "general_description": "The Kingdom of Kaffa held power in southwest Ethiopia. In the late fourteenth century, the Minjo kings of Kaffa took over the throne of the Mato Dynasty and formed the Kingdom of Kaffa in 1390 CE. In total, there were between sixteen to nineteen Kaffa monarchs during the existence of the kingdom. The capital of the Kingdom of Kaffa was at Bonga, and eventually the kingdom acquired a second capital at Anderacha. The Kingdom of Kaffa controlled vast areas of land, establishing trade networks as far as Gondar in the north of Ethiopia during the mid-nineteenth century. The kingdom was home to a diverse range of forty-eight clans who practiced Islam, Christianity and indigenous religions. Kaffa was also divided into eighteen districts which were organized under minor administrative figures. The kingdom finally collapsed in 1897 when the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik II conquered Kaffa territory. §REF§ (Orent 1970, 263-293) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 2, "name": "East Africa", "subregions_list": "Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }