Polity Capital List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Capitals.
GET /api/general/polity-capitals/
{ "count": 629, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/general/polity-capitals/?page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 625, "year_from": -188, "year_to": -77, "description": "The capital city of Artaxiasata was established by Artaxias I.§REF§Hovannisian 2004: 49. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B4DBDFU§REF§ During his reign, Tigranes the Great changed the capital to a location more central to the kingdom, and named it Tigranocerta (Tigranakert).§REF§“Artaxiad Dynasty,” https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IVLMP6Q8§REF§ The remains of Tigranocerta have never been found and its location is debated.§REF§ Bournoutian 2003: 32. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/645FKRNL§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Artaxiasata", "polity": { "id": 351, "name": "AmArtax", "start_year": -188, "end_year": 6, "long_name": "Armenian Kingdom", "new_name": "am_artaxiad_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>The founder of the dynasty was Artaxias I who ascended as King of Greater Armenia in 188 BCE.§REF§Hovannisian 2004: 47. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B4DBDFU§REF§<br>Although Armenia had a strong Iranian culture, particularly with religion, it was greatly influenced by Hellenistic Greek culture and religion, although it was one of the regions that had not been conquered by them. Some of the contemporary Armenian coins describe the kings as ‘Philhellenes’; lovers of Greek culture.§REF§“Artaxias I,”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7V7RMBLQ§REF§§REF§Hovannisian 2004: 50. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B4DBDFU§REF§<br>Artaxiad Armenia was at its peak power during the reign of Tigranes the Great (95-55 BCE). Tigranes was able to unifiy the country’s various autonomous regions, which were governed by the nakharars, and brought central control to the kingdom.§REF§“Artaxiad Dynasty,” https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IVLMP6Q8§REF§ His empire, though only this large for a short time, stretched “from the Caucasus mountains and Media in the northeast to Lebanon in the southwest.”§REF§Hovannisian 2004: 64. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B4DBDFU§REF§<br>During the reign of Tigranes the Great the ongoing wars between the Roman and Parthian Empires led to the demise of the Artaxiad dynasty. Tigranes had allied himself (officially through marriages) with Mithridates the Great, King of Pontus in Anatolia and as the Romans won victories and conquered the surrounding regions, they eventually forced Tigranes to surrender. The Romans, under Pompey, allowed Tigranes to remain on the throne, but reduced the Armenian territory and forced him to become a Roman ally, hence leaving the Armenian kingdom as a buffer between the Roman and the Parthian Empires.<br>Tigranes son and successor, Artavasdes II, remained an ally to the Romans. However, upon Mark Antony’s rule of Rome’s eastern territories, he invaded Armenia, captured Artavasdes II and had him executed, while then placing his own son, Alexander Helios, on the Armenian throne. Artavasdes' son Artaxias II, again allied with the Parthians and took back the throne. After a rule of ten years, he was murdered and the Armenian kingdom broke out in civil war led by two factions, pro-Roman and pro-Parthian. Though the Artaxians remained in power, the region became a Roman protectorate under emperor Augustus and the dynasty eventually died out completely with the final Roman overthrow in 12 CE.§REF§Hovannisian 2004: 58-62. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B4DBDFU§REF§<br>Overall, there is a general lack of information about the social and cultural nature of the Armenian Empire, and a lot of the information is taken from Roman sources and Armenia numismatic evidence.§REF§ Bournoutian 2003: 36. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/645FKRNL§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-11-10T15:00:02.602254Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "polity_cap": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 626, "year_from": -77, "year_to": -69, "description": "The capital city of Artaxiasata was established by Artaxias I.§REF§Hovannisian 2004: 49. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B4DBDFU§REF§ During his reign, Tigranes the Great changed the capital to a location more central to the kingdom, and named it Tigranocerta (Tigranakert).§REF§“Artaxiad Dynasty,” https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IVLMP6Q8§REF§ The remains of Tigranocerta have never been found and its location is debated.§REF§ Bournoutian 2003: 32. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/645FKRNL§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Tigranocerta", "polity": { "id": 351, "name": "AmArtax", "start_year": -188, "end_year": 6, "long_name": "Armenian Kingdom", "new_name": "am_artaxiad_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>The founder of the dynasty was Artaxias I who ascended as King of Greater Armenia in 188 BCE.§REF§Hovannisian 2004: 47. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B4DBDFU§REF§<br>Although Armenia had a strong Iranian culture, particularly with religion, it was greatly influenced by Hellenistic Greek culture and religion, although it was one of the regions that had not been conquered by them. Some of the contemporary Armenian coins describe the kings as ‘Philhellenes’; lovers of Greek culture.§REF§“Artaxias I,”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7V7RMBLQ§REF§§REF§Hovannisian 2004: 50. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B4DBDFU§REF§<br>Artaxiad Armenia was at its peak power during the reign of Tigranes the Great (95-55 BCE). Tigranes was able to unifiy the country’s various autonomous regions, which were governed by the nakharars, and brought central control to the kingdom.§REF§“Artaxiad Dynasty,” https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IVLMP6Q8§REF§ His empire, though only this large for a short time, stretched “from the Caucasus mountains and Media in the northeast to Lebanon in the southwest.”§REF§Hovannisian 2004: 64. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B4DBDFU§REF§<br>During the reign of Tigranes the Great the ongoing wars between the Roman and Parthian Empires led to the demise of the Artaxiad dynasty. Tigranes had allied himself (officially through marriages) with Mithridates the Great, King of Pontus in Anatolia and as the Romans won victories and conquered the surrounding regions, they eventually forced Tigranes to surrender. The Romans, under Pompey, allowed Tigranes to remain on the throne, but reduced the Armenian territory and forced him to become a Roman ally, hence leaving the Armenian kingdom as a buffer between the Roman and the Parthian Empires.<br>Tigranes son and successor, Artavasdes II, remained an ally to the Romans. However, upon Mark Antony’s rule of Rome’s eastern territories, he invaded Armenia, captured Artavasdes II and had him executed, while then placing his own son, Alexander Helios, on the Armenian throne. Artavasdes' son Artaxias II, again allied with the Parthians and took back the throne. After a rule of ten years, he was murdered and the Armenian kingdom broke out in civil war led by two factions, pro-Roman and pro-Parthian. Though the Artaxians remained in power, the region became a Roman protectorate under emperor Augustus and the dynasty eventually died out completely with the final Roman overthrow in 12 CE.§REF§Hovannisian 2004: 58-62. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B4DBDFU§REF§<br>Overall, there is a general lack of information about the social and cultural nature of the Armenian Empire, and a lot of the information is taken from Roman sources and Armenia numismatic evidence.§REF§ Bournoutian 2003: 36. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/645FKRNL§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-11-10T15:00:02.602254Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "polity_cap": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 613, "year_from": 568, "year_to": 568, "description": "Verona was made the first capital of Lombard Italy by the conquering king, Albion. §REF§Christie 1998: 145. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/975BEGKF§REF§ In 584, when the monarchy was dissolved, the capital city was moved west to Milan.§REF§Christie 1998: 146. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/975BEGKF§REF§ In 620 the capital shifted again to Pavia, just south of Milan, where it remained and housed the royal Lombard court.§REF§Peters 2003: xi. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X4ETPHA7§REF§§REF§Christie 1998: 147. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/975BEGKF§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Verona", "polity": { "id": 305, "name": "ItLombr", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 774, "long_name": "Lombard Kingdom", "new_name": "it_lombard_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>The Lombard were a Germanic tribe who, by the end of the 5th century CE, had settled their territory north of the Danube River, which corresponds approximately to the area that is now modern-day Austria. Under the rule of Alboin, the Lombards invaded and migrated to a defenceless Italy in 568 CE, and within a year had conquered and occupied all major cities north of the Po River.§REF§“Lombard | People | Britannica”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/E6RFZXRD§REF§<br>When they arrived in Italy the Lombards were divided into clans, each with its own war-leader, but by the middle of the seventh century a monarchy had been established which led to a centralised authority which each of the clans ‘dukes’ were answerable to.§REF§Peters 2003: x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X4ETPHA7§REF§<br>In 773 CE the Franks under Charlemagne, and in alliance with Pope Adrian I, invaded Italy. After a year of siege they captured the city of Pavia and the Lombards surrendered to Charlemagne. He became the ruler of both the Lombards and the Franks, and Lombardian rule in Italy came to an end.§REF§“Lombard | People | Britannica”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/E6RFZXRD§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-03-13T10:38:50.063861Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "polity_cap": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 614, "year_from": 584, "year_to": 584, "description": "Verona was made the first capital of Lombard Italy by the conquering king, Albion. §REF§Christie 1998: 145. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/975BEGKF§REF§ In 584, when the monarchy was dissolved, the capital city was moved west to Milan.§REF§Christie 1998: 146. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/975BEGKF§REF§ In 620 the capital shifted again to Pavia, just south of Milan, where it remained and housed the royal Lombard court.§REF§Peters 2003: xi. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X4ETPHA7§REF§§REF§Christie 1998: 147. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/975BEGKF§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Milan", "polity": { "id": 305, "name": "ItLombr", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 774, "long_name": "Lombard Kingdom", "new_name": "it_lombard_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>The Lombard were a Germanic tribe who, by the end of the 5th century CE, had settled their territory north of the Danube River, which corresponds approximately to the area that is now modern-day Austria. Under the rule of Alboin, the Lombards invaded and migrated to a defenceless Italy in 568 CE, and within a year had conquered and occupied all major cities north of the Po River.§REF§“Lombard | People | Britannica”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/E6RFZXRD§REF§<br>When they arrived in Italy the Lombards were divided into clans, each with its own war-leader, but by the middle of the seventh century a monarchy had been established which led to a centralised authority which each of the clans ‘dukes’ were answerable to.§REF§Peters 2003: x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X4ETPHA7§REF§<br>In 773 CE the Franks under Charlemagne, and in alliance with Pope Adrian I, invaded Italy. After a year of siege they captured the city of Pavia and the Lombards surrendered to Charlemagne. He became the ruler of both the Lombards and the Franks, and Lombardian rule in Italy came to an end.§REF§“Lombard | People | Britannica”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/E6RFZXRD§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-03-13T10:38:50.063861Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "polity_cap": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 572, "year_from": 800, "year_to": 1080, "description": "Dates are tentative and approximative, and based on the following quote(s). \"Manan, Jimi, and Jaja are mentioned as the successive capitals of the early Kanem-Borno empire before its shift to the location west of Lake Chad. The pre-Islamic capital of Manan should, according to the reconstructed map, be located well to the north of the lake.[...] The case of Jimi, the twelfth- and thirteenth-century capital, is equally unsolved. [...] The place to which the Sayfuwa fled after the abandonment of their homeland in Kanem is called Jaja in Ibn Said's text.\"§REF§(Gronenborn 2002: 104-106§REF§ Because it is described as the \"pre-Islamic\" capital, we are inferring Manin to have been the capital roughly from the start of the polity's existence to \"the adoption of Islam by the Kanembu rulers ca. A.D. 1080s\",§REF§(Ogundiran 2005: 144)§REF§. Jimi is estimated here to have been the capital until around 1300 due to the following quote: \"The Arab historian Ibn Khaldun described a caravan with gifts arriving at Tunis in 1257 from 'the king of Kanem . . . ruler of Barnu' (Levtzion and Hopkins 1981: 337). It is from then on that the toponym 'Borno' appears in the text sources. This land of Borno would be of essential importance to the history of the empire since, shortly after Ibn Khaldun wrote his text, a long lingering conflict between the Sayfuwa and a neighboring nomadic ethnic group, the Bulala, broke out. This led to the collapse of the first Sayfuwa state and the abandonment of Kanem (Barth 1857-59 II: 33). The court left the old capital and migrated to a place variously called Jaja or Kaka, where a new political center was established. This Jaja/Kaka was situated in the land of Borno (Barkindo 1985: 240; Lange, 1993: 272). It seems, however, that on-going conflicts with the local population led to an abandonment of Jaja/Kaka and the Kanem-Borno mais were forced to move their seat frequently (Barkindo 1985: 245).\" §REF§(Gronenborn 2002: 103)§REF§ As for Jaja, the last quote suggests it was the capital for at least part of the fourteenth century, but it is unclear for how long", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Manan", "polity": { "id": 614, "name": "cd_kanem", "start_year": 800, "end_year": 1379, "long_name": "Kanem", "new_name": "cd_kanem", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "polity_cap": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 642, "year_from": 963, "year_to": 1319, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-02-25T10:41:17.685259Z", "modified_date": "2024-02-25T10:41:17.685278Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Gniezno", "polity": { "id": 317, "name": "PlPoliK", "start_year": 963, "end_year": 1138, "long_name": "Polish Kingdom - Piast Dynasty", "new_name": "pl_piast_dyn_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kingdom of Poland, was a significant medieval polity in Central Europe, primarily encompassing the territory of modern-day Poland. Initially a fragmented region, Poland began to coalesce into a more unified entity under the Piast dynasty, which emerged in the late 10th century. Mieszko I, recognized as the first ruler of Poland, adopted Christianity in 966, aligning the kingdom more closely with Western Europe.§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LUJ3NYJU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU</b></a>§REF§\r\nUnder the Piast dynasty, Poland experienced periods of expansion and consolidation, extending its influence over neighboring Slavic tribes and territories. The reign of Bolesław I the Brave (992-1025) was notable for its military campaigns and the establishment of Poland's first archbishopric in Gniezno, affirming Poland's status within Christendom.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</b></a>§REF§The kingdom faced challenges, including internal divisions, succession disputes, and external threats from the Holy Roman Empire, the Kievan Rus', and later, the Teutonic Knights. Despite these challenges, the Piast rulers managed to maintain a degree of autonomy.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</b></a>§REF§\r\nThe fragmentation period (1138-1320) saw Poland divided into several duchies, weakening central authority and leading to increased German influence in some regions. This period was characterized by internal strife and the gradual erosion of the Piast dynasty's power.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-04-05T10:45:51.367873Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "polity_cap": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 644, "year_from": 1000, "year_to": 1256, "description": "Esztergom was the capital of the Kingdom of Hungary until 1256.§REF§“Esztergom történelme - dióhéjban - Esztergom Városa,” accessed March 3, 2024, https://www.esztergom.hu/turizmus/tortenelem/112-esztergom_tortenelme_diohejban.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KNRBEVA7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KNRBEVA7</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-02-27T12:04:59.285933Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-03T19:57:01.358264Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Esztergom", "polity": { "id": 810, "name": "hu_arpad_dyn", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1301, "long_name": "Hungary Kingdom - Árpád Dynasty", "new_name": "hu_arpad_dyn", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "The Árpád dynasty played a key role in forming the Kingdom of Hungary into an important Christian state in medieval Europe. This period began with Saint Stephen I's coronation, signifying the transition from a collection of Magyar tribes to a unified Christian monarchy. The Magyars, who settled in the Carpathian Basin at the end of the 9th century, were a group of nomadic tribes known for their raids across Europe. These tribes were eventually consolidated into a single nation, adopting Christianity as the central religion. This transformation laid the foundations for the modern Hungarian state, encompassing areas that today include Austria, Croatia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, and Slovenia.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BBKM3AR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR</b></a>§REF§The legal and administrative systems of Hungary during this period were codified in the \"laws of the king,\"§REF§László Kontler, Millennium in Central Europe: A History of Hungary (Budapest: Atlantisz, 1999).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CSSN8HUW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CSSN8HUW</b></a>§REF§ which sought to integrate Christian principles with existing tribal customs. Latin was used for administrative and religious purposes, while various dialects were spoken among the populace. The common customs and laws varied significantly across the realm.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BBKM3AR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR</b></a>§REF§Roman Catholicism, served as the cornerstone of the kingdom's identity, with the Hungarian monarchs championing the faith and the construction of monumental religious buildings. This alliance with the Roman Catholic Church was instrumental in shaping the kingdom politically and culturally and made it a part of the Christian Kingdoms in central Europe. This alliance also brought conflict at times with the still pagan tribal people of the Kingdom.§REF§Gyula Kristó, Magyarország története 895-1301, Osiris tankönyvek (Budapest: Osiris kiadó, 2003).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4YU2XJ8C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4YU2XJ8C</b></a>§REF§\r\nHungary's history during the Árpád dynasty was marked by internal strife among the nobility and external threats from invaders such as the Mongols, who devastated the kingdom in 1241.§REF§Peter Jackson, The Mongols and the West, 1221-1410, The medieval world (Harlow, England ; New York: Pearson Longman, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GNAFQ557\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GNAFQ557</b></a>§REF§ The Árpád dynasty's decline began in the late 13th century, leading to a period of interregnum and the eventual rise of the Angevin dynasty.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BBKM3AR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": "2024-03-01T11:39:00.642109Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-03T20:47:24.766769Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "polity_cap": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 618, "year_from": 1077, "year_to": 1212, "description": "The city of Gurgānj (also referred to as Jurjaniya, Urgench or Khorezm)§REF§Buniyatov 2015: 181. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SAEVEJFH§REF§ grew rapidly in the tenth and eleventh centuries as it was a terminus for the caravan routes to Volga and Russia.§REF§Bosworth 2012: 302. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B6JRSLIB§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Gurganj", "polity": { "id": 295, "name": "TmKhwrz", "start_year": 1157, "end_year": 1231, "long_name": "Khwarezmid Empire", "new_name": "tm_khwarezmid_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>The Khwarezmid (Khwarazmian or Khorezmian or Khorezmshah) Empire was ruled by the Khwarazmian dynasty (also known by Khwarazmshah dynasty, Anushtegin dynasty or Anushteginids) and consisted of parts of modern-day Iran, Afghanistan and Central Asia.<br>The Khwarazmshah dynasty were initially vassal rulers of the Seljuqs but later established their own independent state - which quickly grew into an empire - after the death of the Seljuq Sultan, Sanjar, in 1157.<br>The polity ends after the Mongol conquest of the region in 1219-1221, and the death of the final Khwarazmshah, Muḥammad, Jalāl al-Dīn, in 1231.<br>The list of rulers are:<br>c. 470/c. 1077 Anūshtigin Gharcha’ī nominal Khwārazm Shāh.<br>490/1097 Ekinchi b. Qochqar, Turkish governor with the title Khwdrazm Shah.<br>490/1097 Arslan Tigin Muḥammad b. Anūshtigin, Abu ’l-Fatḥ, Quṭb al-Dín, Khwārazm Shah.<br>521/1127 Qïzïl Arslan Atsïz b. Muḥammad, Abu ‘l-Muẓaffar ‘Alā al-Dīn.<br>551/1156 Il Arslan b. Atsïz, Abu’ l-Fatḥ.<br>567/1172 Tekish b. Il Arslan, Abu’ l-Muẓaffar Tāj al-Dunyā wa ‘ l-Dīn.<br>567– 89/1172–93 Mahmūd b. Il Arslan, Abu ‘ l-Qāsim Sulṭan Shāh, Jalāl al- Dunyā wa ’l-Dīn, rival ruler in northern Khurasan, d.589/1193.<br>596/1200 Muḥammad b. Tekish ‘Alā’ al-Dīn.<br>617–28/1220–31 Mengübirti (one of the usual renderings of this cryptic Turkish name; a further possibility suggested recently by Dr Peter Jackson is Mingīrinī: ‘having a thousand men’ = the familiar Persian name Hazārmard) b. Muḥammad, Jalāl al-Dīn.<br>Mongol conquest of Transoxania and Persia.<br>§REF§Khwarazmshahs I. Descendants of the Line of Anuštigin. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9U8ZTYS§REF§§REF§Bosworth 2012: 301-302. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B6JRSLIB§REF§§REF§ Soucek 2000: 320. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GNQIHZ4T§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 13, "name": "Turkestan", "subregions_list": "Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "polity_cap": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 573, "year_from": 1081, "year_to": 1299, "description": "Dates are tentative and approximative, and based on the following quote(s). \"Manan, Jimi, and Jaja are mentioned as the successive capitals of the early Kanem-Borno empire before its shift to the location west of Lake Chad. The pre-Islamic capital of Manan should, according to the reconstructed map, be located well to the north of the lake.[...] The case of Jimi, the twelfth- and thirteenth-century capital, is equally unsolved. [...] The place to which the Sayfuwa fled after the abandonment of their homeland in Kanem is called Jaja in Ibn Said's text.\"§REF§(Gronenborn 2002: 104-106§REF§ Because it is described as the \"pre-Islamic\" capital, we are inferring Manin to have been the capital roughly from the start of the polity's existence to \"the adoption of Islam by the Kanembu rulers ca. A.D. 1080s\",§REF§(Ogundiran 2005: 144)§REF§. Jimi is estimated here to have been the capital until around 1300 due to the following quote: \"The Arab historian Ibn Khaldun described a caravan with gifts arriving at Tunis in 1257 from 'the king of Kanem . . . ruler of Barnu' (Levtzion and Hopkins 1981: 337). It is from then on that the toponym 'Borno' appears in the text sources. This land of Borno would be of essential importance to the history of the empire since, shortly after Ibn Khaldun wrote his text, a long lingering conflict between the Sayfuwa and a neighboring nomadic ethnic group, the Bulala, broke out. This led to the collapse of the first Sayfuwa state and the abandonment of Kanem (Barth 1857-59 II: 33). The court left the old capital and migrated to a place variously called Jaja or Kaka, where a new political center was established. This Jaja/Kaka was situated in the land of Borno (Barkindo 1985: 240; Lange, 1993: 272). It seems, however, that on-going conflicts with the local population led to an abandonment of Jaja/Kaka and the Kanem-Borno mais were forced to move their seat frequently (Barkindo 1985: 245).\" §REF§(Gronenborn 2002: 103)§REF§ As for Jaja, the last quote suggests it was the capital for at least part of the fourteenth century, but it is unclear for how long", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Jimi", "polity": { "id": 614, "name": "cd_kanem", "start_year": 800, "end_year": 1379, "long_name": "Kanem", "new_name": "cd_kanem", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "polity_cap": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 619, "year_from": 1212, "year_to": 1220, "description": "The city of Gurgānj (also referred to as Jurjaniya, Urgench or Khorezm)§REF§Buniyatov 2015: 181. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SAEVEJFH§REF§ grew rapidly in the tenth and eleventh centuries as it was a terminus for the caravan routes to Volga and Russia.§REF§Bosworth 2012: 302. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B6JRSLIB§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Samarqand", "polity": { "id": 295, "name": "TmKhwrz", "start_year": 1157, "end_year": 1231, "long_name": "Khwarezmid Empire", "new_name": "tm_khwarezmid_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>The Khwarezmid (Khwarazmian or Khorezmian or Khorezmshah) Empire was ruled by the Khwarazmian dynasty (also known by Khwarazmshah dynasty, Anushtegin dynasty or Anushteginids) and consisted of parts of modern-day Iran, Afghanistan and Central Asia.<br>The Khwarazmshah dynasty were initially vassal rulers of the Seljuqs but later established their own independent state - which quickly grew into an empire - after the death of the Seljuq Sultan, Sanjar, in 1157.<br>The polity ends after the Mongol conquest of the region in 1219-1221, and the death of the final Khwarazmshah, Muḥammad, Jalāl al-Dīn, in 1231.<br>The list of rulers are:<br>c. 470/c. 1077 Anūshtigin Gharcha’ī nominal Khwārazm Shāh.<br>490/1097 Ekinchi b. Qochqar, Turkish governor with the title Khwdrazm Shah.<br>490/1097 Arslan Tigin Muḥammad b. Anūshtigin, Abu ’l-Fatḥ, Quṭb al-Dín, Khwārazm Shah.<br>521/1127 Qïzïl Arslan Atsïz b. Muḥammad, Abu ‘l-Muẓaffar ‘Alā al-Dīn.<br>551/1156 Il Arslan b. Atsïz, Abu’ l-Fatḥ.<br>567/1172 Tekish b. Il Arslan, Abu’ l-Muẓaffar Tāj al-Dunyā wa ‘ l-Dīn.<br>567– 89/1172–93 Mahmūd b. Il Arslan, Abu ‘ l-Qāsim Sulṭan Shāh, Jalāl al- Dunyā wa ’l-Dīn, rival ruler in northern Khurasan, d.589/1193.<br>596/1200 Muḥammad b. Tekish ‘Alā’ al-Dīn.<br>617–28/1220–31 Mengübirti (one of the usual renderings of this cryptic Turkish name; a further possibility suggested recently by Dr Peter Jackson is Mingīrinī: ‘having a thousand men’ = the familiar Persian name Hazārmard) b. Muḥammad, Jalāl al-Dīn.<br>Mongol conquest of Transoxania and Persia.<br>§REF§Khwarazmshahs I. Descendants of the Line of Anuštigin. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9U8ZTYS§REF§§REF§Bosworth 2012: 301-302. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B6JRSLIB§REF§§REF§ Soucek 2000: 320. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GNQIHZ4T§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 13, "name": "Turkestan", "subregions_list": "Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "polity_cap": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }