Power Transition List

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            "description": "Nebka, or Sanakhte, was the first king of the Third Dynasty, but little is known about his reign. Clayton (1994, 32) speculates that he may have come to power peacefully through a marriage alliance with a daughter of the last Second-Dynasty king. However, while on the throne he faced 'internal political problems' (Clayton 1994, 32).§REF§(Lloyd 2010, xxxiii) Lloyd, Alan B. 2010. “Chronology.” In A Companion to Ancient Egypt, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 1:xxxii – xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/R95E4VDR§REF§ §REF§(Morby and Rozier 2014) Morby, John E., and Charlie Rozier. 2014. Dynasties of the World. 2nd ed., online edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acref/9780191780073.001.0001. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3C5IVS6E§REF§ §REF§(Clayton 1994, 32) Clayton, Peter A. 1994. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N9DP44W9.§REF§",
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            "predecessor": "Nebka / Horus Sanakht",
            "successor": "Djoser / Horus Netjerykhet",
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                "general_description": "The Old Kingdom period of Egypt covers the Third to Sixth ruling Dynasties, a period stretching from about 2650 to 2150 BCE. Seshat divides this period into two groups, the 'Classic' Old Kingdom period, covering the First through Fifth Dynasties (roughly 2650-2350 BCE), and the 'Late' Old Kingdom, comprising the turbulent Sixth Dynasty (2350-2150 BCE). The Fifth Dynasty, with its complex and effective administrative systems, is considered to be the high point for the centralization of the Old Kingdom government.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the Old Kingdom of Egypt, a god-king based in Memphis extended his reach along the Nile river through a network of royal centres, military towers and agricultural domains. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 196) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  Few documents survive from the period; what evidence there is suggests that Egypt had become a centrally planned and administered state. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 95) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  During the Third Dynasty, high positions within the central administration were characteristically ‒ but not exclusively ‒ the preserve of the king's family. A notable exception was the chancellor and high priest Imhotep, the architect of Djoser's famous funerary complex which housed (among other buildings) the Step Pyramid. During the Fourth Dynasty, the number of officials from outside the king's family increased within the Egyptian administration, a trend which peaked in the Fifth Dynasty when the vizier became a powerful figure in his own right. The vizier oversaw the palace government's granaries and treasuries, within which there were specialized departments and hierarchies of scribes. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 46, 78) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  One of the best known literary works of the Old Kingdom, <i>The Maxims of Ptahhotep</i> ‒ an invaluable source on Egyptian officialdom ‒ was written by a vizier at the end of the Fifth Dynasty. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  According to Egyptologist Hratch Papazian, however, a true hierarchical bureaucracy emerged only in the Late Old Kingdom. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 67-68) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>Initially, control over the approximately 300,000 square kilometres of Egyptian territory outside of Memphis was exercised through royal centres called <i>hwt</i>, run by directly-appointed state officials. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  At first there were no formal provincial boundaries; the hwt, a royal possession, might extend over several villages, large amounts of royal agricultural land, labourers, fields and cattle. The governor and staff of the hwt were responsible for irrigation works. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 80) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Chichester. §REF§  §REF§ (Malek 2000, 94) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  One notable change that occurred between the Fifth to Sixth Dynasties was that control over the hwt gradually passed from the royal administration to a provincial nobility. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 108) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>A religious network of temples, mortuary complexes and local cults spread over the landscape of Egypt between 2650 and 2350 BCE. Long viewed as an incarnation of an ancient sky and falcon god called Horus, from the Fourth Dynasty onward the Egyptian king also was considered the son of a sun god, Ra. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 71-72) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Ra grew in importance during the Old Kingdom and, around the beginning of the Fifth Dynasty, had essentially become an Egyptian state god. Although a common religious-ideological system prevailed throughout Old Kingdom Egypt centred on the divine authority of the king and a pantheon of deities and spirits, in general religious beliefs at this time were 'locally diverse and socially stratified'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  independent mortuary priests served cults at tombs dedicated to the afterlives of important individuals and local variation in the focus of worship remained an integral part of Egyptian religion. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  On the burial chamber walls of King Unas, who reigned c. 2375-2345 BCE, we find the first Pyramid Texts, 'the earliest large religious composition known from ancient Egypt'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ",
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            "id": 1727,
            "year_from": -2667,
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            "description": "Djoser, who may have been Nebka's brother, was responsible for the construction of the first Egyptian pyramid (Clayton 1994, 32-33). The monumental construction that took place during his relatively short reign testifies to his authority, but like his predecessor he 'faced internal political problems' (Clayton 1994, 32). It seems that historians lack any detailed information on contestations during his reign.§REF§(Lloyd 2010, xxxiii) Lloyd, Alan B. 2010. “Chronology.” In A Companion to Ancient Egypt, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 1:xxxii – xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/R95E4VDR§REF§ §REF§(Morby and Rozier 2014) Morby, John E., and Charlie Rozier. 2014. Dynasties of the World. 2nd ed., online edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acref/9780191780073.001.0001. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3C5IVS6E§REF§ §REF§(Baud 2010, 63) Baud, Michel. 2010. “The Old Kingdom.” In A Companion to Ancient Egypt, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 1:63–80. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HEHUKZFF§REF§ §REF§(Clayton 1994, 32-37) Clayton, Peter A. 1994. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N9DP44W9§REF§ §REF§(Baud 2010) Baud, Michel. 2010. “The Old Kingdom.” In A Companion to Ancient Egypt, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 1:63–80. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HEHUKZFF§REF§ §REF§(Malek 2000, 87) Malek, Jaromir. 2000. “The Old Kingdom (2686-2160 BC).” In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 83–107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6AME4SP6.§REF§",
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            "predecessor": "Djoser / Horus Netjerykhet",
            "successor": "Djoser Teti / Horus Sekhemkhet",
            "reign_number_predecessor": null,
            "name": "None",
            "culture_group": "Pharaonic_Egypt",
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                "long_name": "Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom",
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                "general_description": "The Old Kingdom period of Egypt covers the Third to Sixth ruling Dynasties, a period stretching from about 2650 to 2150 BCE. Seshat divides this period into two groups, the 'Classic' Old Kingdom period, covering the First through Fifth Dynasties (roughly 2650-2350 BCE), and the 'Late' Old Kingdom, comprising the turbulent Sixth Dynasty (2350-2150 BCE). The Fifth Dynasty, with its complex and effective administrative systems, is considered to be the high point for the centralization of the Old Kingdom government.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the Old Kingdom of Egypt, a god-king based in Memphis extended his reach along the Nile river through a network of royal centres, military towers and agricultural domains. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 196) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  Few documents survive from the period; what evidence there is suggests that Egypt had become a centrally planned and administered state. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 95) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  During the Third Dynasty, high positions within the central administration were characteristically ‒ but not exclusively ‒ the preserve of the king's family. A notable exception was the chancellor and high priest Imhotep, the architect of Djoser's famous funerary complex which housed (among other buildings) the Step Pyramid. During the Fourth Dynasty, the number of officials from outside the king's family increased within the Egyptian administration, a trend which peaked in the Fifth Dynasty when the vizier became a powerful figure in his own right. The vizier oversaw the palace government's granaries and treasuries, within which there were specialized departments and hierarchies of scribes. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 46, 78) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  One of the best known literary works of the Old Kingdom, <i>The Maxims of Ptahhotep</i> ‒ an invaluable source on Egyptian officialdom ‒ was written by a vizier at the end of the Fifth Dynasty. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  According to Egyptologist Hratch Papazian, however, a true hierarchical bureaucracy emerged only in the Late Old Kingdom. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 67-68) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>Initially, control over the approximately 300,000 square kilometres of Egyptian territory outside of Memphis was exercised through royal centres called <i>hwt</i>, run by directly-appointed state officials. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  At first there were no formal provincial boundaries; the hwt, a royal possession, might extend over several villages, large amounts of royal agricultural land, labourers, fields and cattle. The governor and staff of the hwt were responsible for irrigation works. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 80) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Chichester. §REF§  §REF§ (Malek 2000, 94) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  One notable change that occurred between the Fifth to Sixth Dynasties was that control over the hwt gradually passed from the royal administration to a provincial nobility. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 108) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>A religious network of temples, mortuary complexes and local cults spread over the landscape of Egypt between 2650 and 2350 BCE. Long viewed as an incarnation of an ancient sky and falcon god called Horus, from the Fourth Dynasty onward the Egyptian king also was considered the son of a sun god, Ra. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 71-72) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Ra grew in importance during the Old Kingdom and, around the beginning of the Fifth Dynasty, had essentially become an Egyptian state god. Although a common religious-ideological system prevailed throughout Old Kingdom Egypt centred on the divine authority of the king and a pantheon of deities and spirits, in general religious beliefs at this time were 'locally diverse and socially stratified'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  independent mortuary priests served cults at tombs dedicated to the afterlives of important individuals and local variation in the focus of worship remained an integral part of Egyptian religion. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  On the burial chamber walls of King Unas, who reigned c. 2375-2345 BCE, we find the first Pyramid Texts, 'the earliest large religious composition known from ancient Egypt'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ",
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        {
            "id": 1728,
            "year_from": -2648,
            "year_to": -2640,
            "description": "Sekhemkhet left an unfinished pyramid at Saqqara (Clayton 1994, 38-39) and is known from rock reliefs left by Egyptian military expeditions in the Western Sinai (Baud 2010, 72), but it appears that the details of his accession and reign are unknown (Malek 2000, 87).§REF§(Lloyd 2010, xxxiv) Lloyd, Alan B. 2010. “Chronology.” In A Companion to Ancient Egypt, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 1:xxxii – xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/R95E4VDR§REF§ §REF§(Morby and Rozier 2014) Morby, John E., and Charlie Rozier. 2014. Dynasties of the World. 2nd ed., online edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acref/9780191780073.001.0001. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3C5IVS6E§REF§ §REF§(Clayton 1994, 14, 38-40) Clayton, Peter A. 1994. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N9DP44W9§REF§ §REF§§REF§",
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            "predecessor": "Djoser Teti / Horus Sekhemkhet",
            "successor": "Horus Khaba",
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            "name": "None",
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                "general_description": "The Old Kingdom period of Egypt covers the Third to Sixth ruling Dynasties, a period stretching from about 2650 to 2150 BCE. Seshat divides this period into two groups, the 'Classic' Old Kingdom period, covering the First through Fifth Dynasties (roughly 2650-2350 BCE), and the 'Late' Old Kingdom, comprising the turbulent Sixth Dynasty (2350-2150 BCE). The Fifth Dynasty, with its complex and effective administrative systems, is considered to be the high point for the centralization of the Old Kingdom government.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the Old Kingdom of Egypt, a god-king based in Memphis extended his reach along the Nile river through a network of royal centres, military towers and agricultural domains. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 196) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  Few documents survive from the period; what evidence there is suggests that Egypt had become a centrally planned and administered state. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 95) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  During the Third Dynasty, high positions within the central administration were characteristically ‒ but not exclusively ‒ the preserve of the king's family. A notable exception was the chancellor and high priest Imhotep, the architect of Djoser's famous funerary complex which housed (among other buildings) the Step Pyramid. During the Fourth Dynasty, the number of officials from outside the king's family increased within the Egyptian administration, a trend which peaked in the Fifth Dynasty when the vizier became a powerful figure in his own right. The vizier oversaw the palace government's granaries and treasuries, within which there were specialized departments and hierarchies of scribes. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 46, 78) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  One of the best known literary works of the Old Kingdom, <i>The Maxims of Ptahhotep</i> ‒ an invaluable source on Egyptian officialdom ‒ was written by a vizier at the end of the Fifth Dynasty. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  According to Egyptologist Hratch Papazian, however, a true hierarchical bureaucracy emerged only in the Late Old Kingdom. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 67-68) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>Initially, control over the approximately 300,000 square kilometres of Egyptian territory outside of Memphis was exercised through royal centres called <i>hwt</i>, run by directly-appointed state officials. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  At first there were no formal provincial boundaries; the hwt, a royal possession, might extend over several villages, large amounts of royal agricultural land, labourers, fields and cattle. The governor and staff of the hwt were responsible for irrigation works. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 80) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Chichester. §REF§  §REF§ (Malek 2000, 94) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  One notable change that occurred between the Fifth to Sixth Dynasties was that control over the hwt gradually passed from the royal administration to a provincial nobility. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 108) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>A religious network of temples, mortuary complexes and local cults spread over the landscape of Egypt between 2650 and 2350 BCE. Long viewed as an incarnation of an ancient sky and falcon god called Horus, from the Fourth Dynasty onward the Egyptian king also was considered the son of a sun god, Ra. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 71-72) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Ra grew in importance during the Old Kingdom and, around the beginning of the Fifth Dynasty, had essentially become an Egyptian state god. Although a common religious-ideological system prevailed throughout Old Kingdom Egypt centred on the divine authority of the king and a pantheon of deities and spirits, in general religious beliefs at this time were 'locally diverse and socially stratified'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  independent mortuary priests served cults at tombs dedicated to the afterlives of important individuals and local variation in the focus of worship remained an integral part of Egyptian religion. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  On the burial chamber walls of King Unas, who reigned c. 2375-2345 BCE, we find the first Pyramid Texts, 'the earliest large religious composition known from ancient Egypt'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ",
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            "description": "Khaba was probably responsible for the 'Layer Pyramid' at Zawiyet el-Aryan (Clayton 1994, 40; Malek 2000, 87). It appears that the details of his accession and reign are unknown.§REF§(Lloyd 2010, xxxiv) Lloyd, Alan B. 2010. “Chronology.” In A Companion to Ancient Egypt, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 1:xxxii – xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/R95E4VDR§REF§ §REF§(Morby and Rozier 2014) Morby, John E., and Charlie Rozier. 2014. Dynasties of the World. 2nd ed., online edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acref/9780191780073.001.0001. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3C5IVS6E§REF§ §REF§(Clayton 1994, 40) Clayton, Peter A. 1994. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N9DP44W9§REF§ §REF§(Malek 2000, 87) Malek, Jaromir. 2000. “The Old Kingdom (2686-2160 BC).” In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 83–107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6AME4SP6.§REF§",
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            "tag": "TRS",
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            "predecessor": "Horus Khaba",
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                "general_description": "The Old Kingdom period of Egypt covers the Third to Sixth ruling Dynasties, a period stretching from about 2650 to 2150 BCE. Seshat divides this period into two groups, the 'Classic' Old Kingdom period, covering the First through Fifth Dynasties (roughly 2650-2350 BCE), and the 'Late' Old Kingdom, comprising the turbulent Sixth Dynasty (2350-2150 BCE). The Fifth Dynasty, with its complex and effective administrative systems, is considered to be the high point for the centralization of the Old Kingdom government.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the Old Kingdom of Egypt, a god-king based in Memphis extended his reach along the Nile river through a network of royal centres, military towers and agricultural domains. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 196) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  Few documents survive from the period; what evidence there is suggests that Egypt had become a centrally planned and administered state. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 95) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  During the Third Dynasty, high positions within the central administration were characteristically ‒ but not exclusively ‒ the preserve of the king's family. A notable exception was the chancellor and high priest Imhotep, the architect of Djoser's famous funerary complex which housed (among other buildings) the Step Pyramid. During the Fourth Dynasty, the number of officials from outside the king's family increased within the Egyptian administration, a trend which peaked in the Fifth Dynasty when the vizier became a powerful figure in his own right. The vizier oversaw the palace government's granaries and treasuries, within which there were specialized departments and hierarchies of scribes. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 46, 78) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  One of the best known literary works of the Old Kingdom, <i>The Maxims of Ptahhotep</i> ‒ an invaluable source on Egyptian officialdom ‒ was written by a vizier at the end of the Fifth Dynasty. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  According to Egyptologist Hratch Papazian, however, a true hierarchical bureaucracy emerged only in the Late Old Kingdom. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 67-68) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>Initially, control over the approximately 300,000 square kilometres of Egyptian territory outside of Memphis was exercised through royal centres called <i>hwt</i>, run by directly-appointed state officials. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  At first there were no formal provincial boundaries; the hwt, a royal possession, might extend over several villages, large amounts of royal agricultural land, labourers, fields and cattle. The governor and staff of the hwt were responsible for irrigation works. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 80) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Chichester. §REF§  §REF§ (Malek 2000, 94) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  One notable change that occurred between the Fifth to Sixth Dynasties was that control over the hwt gradually passed from the royal administration to a provincial nobility. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 108) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>A religious network of temples, mortuary complexes and local cults spread over the landscape of Egypt between 2650 and 2350 BCE. Long viewed as an incarnation of an ancient sky and falcon god called Horus, from the Fourth Dynasty onward the Egyptian king also was considered the son of a sun god, Ra. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 71-72) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Ra grew in importance during the Old Kingdom and, around the beginning of the Fifth Dynasty, had essentially become an Egyptian state god. Although a common religious-ideological system prevailed throughout Old Kingdom Egypt centred on the divine authority of the king and a pantheon of deities and spirits, in general religious beliefs at this time were 'locally diverse and socially stratified'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  independent mortuary priests served cults at tombs dedicated to the afterlives of important individuals and local variation in the focus of worship remained an integral part of Egyptian religion. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  On the burial chamber walls of King Unas, who reigned c. 2375-2345 BCE, we find the first Pyramid Texts, 'the earliest large religious composition known from ancient Egypt'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ",
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            "id": 1730,
            "year_from": -2637,
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            "description": "Huni was the last king of the Third Dynasty. He built his tomb at Meydum, 80 km south of Cairo, although it was likely finished by his successor Snefru (Clayton 1994, 40). In an apparently peaceful transition Snefru - possibly Huni's son by a 'minor wife' (Clayton 1994, 42), although this is disputed (Baud 2010, 66) - married Huni's daughter Hetep-heres, thus founding the Fourth Dynasty (Clayton 1994, 41-42). The sources do not give detailed information on Huni's accession and reign. Baud (2010, 66) writes that 'Although the line of demarcation between dynasties seems to have been permeable as far as blood lines were concerned, nevertheless the breaks between the 4th, 5th and 6th Dynasties could well have been linked to the accession of new families or branches of families to power'. NB: Lloyd's (2010) chronology section lists 'Neferkare' and 'Sanakht' between Khaba and Huni, but marks them with question marks.§REF§(Lloyd 2010, xxxiv) Lloyd, Alan B. 2010. “Chronology.” In A Companion to Ancient Egypt, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 1:xxxii – xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/R95E4VDR§REF§ §REF§(Morby and Rozier 2014) Morby, John E., and Charlie Rozier. 2014. Dynasties of the World. 2nd ed., online edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acref/9780191780073.001.0001. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3C5IVS6E§REF§ §REF§(Clayton 1994, 40-42) Clayton, Peter A. 1994. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N9DP44W9§REF§ §REF§(Baud 2010, 66) Baud, Michel. 2010. “The Old Kingdom.” In A Companion to Ancient Egypt, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 1:63–80. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HEHUKZFF§REF§ §REF§(Malek 2000, 88) Malek, Jaromir. 2000. “The Old Kingdom (2686-2160 BC).” In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 83–107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6AME4SP6.§REF§",
            "note": null,
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            "predecessor": "Huni / Horus Qahedjet",
            "successor": "Snefru",
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            "name": "None",
            "culture_group": "Pharaonic_Egypt",
            "contested": "A",
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            "military_revolt": "A",
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            "separatist_rebellion": "A",
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                "general_description": "The Old Kingdom period of Egypt covers the Third to Sixth ruling Dynasties, a period stretching from about 2650 to 2150 BCE. Seshat divides this period into two groups, the 'Classic' Old Kingdom period, covering the First through Fifth Dynasties (roughly 2650-2350 BCE), and the 'Late' Old Kingdom, comprising the turbulent Sixth Dynasty (2350-2150 BCE). The Fifth Dynasty, with its complex and effective administrative systems, is considered to be the high point for the centralization of the Old Kingdom government.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the Old Kingdom of Egypt, a god-king based in Memphis extended his reach along the Nile river through a network of royal centres, military towers and agricultural domains. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 196) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  Few documents survive from the period; what evidence there is suggests that Egypt had become a centrally planned and administered state. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 95) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  During the Third Dynasty, high positions within the central administration were characteristically ‒ but not exclusively ‒ the preserve of the king's family. A notable exception was the chancellor and high priest Imhotep, the architect of Djoser's famous funerary complex which housed (among other buildings) the Step Pyramid. During the Fourth Dynasty, the number of officials from outside the king's family increased within the Egyptian administration, a trend which peaked in the Fifth Dynasty when the vizier became a powerful figure in his own right. The vizier oversaw the palace government's granaries and treasuries, within which there were specialized departments and hierarchies of scribes. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 46, 78) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  One of the best known literary works of the Old Kingdom, <i>The Maxims of Ptahhotep</i> ‒ an invaluable source on Egyptian officialdom ‒ was written by a vizier at the end of the Fifth Dynasty. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  According to Egyptologist Hratch Papazian, however, a true hierarchical bureaucracy emerged only in the Late Old Kingdom. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 67-68) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>Initially, control over the approximately 300,000 square kilometres of Egyptian territory outside of Memphis was exercised through royal centres called <i>hwt</i>, run by directly-appointed state officials. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  At first there were no formal provincial boundaries; the hwt, a royal possession, might extend over several villages, large amounts of royal agricultural land, labourers, fields and cattle. The governor and staff of the hwt were responsible for irrigation works. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 80) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Chichester. §REF§  §REF§ (Malek 2000, 94) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  One notable change that occurred between the Fifth to Sixth Dynasties was that control over the hwt gradually passed from the royal administration to a provincial nobility. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 108) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>A religious network of temples, mortuary complexes and local cults spread over the landscape of Egypt between 2650 and 2350 BCE. Long viewed as an incarnation of an ancient sky and falcon god called Horus, from the Fourth Dynasty onward the Egyptian king also was considered the son of a sun god, Ra. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 71-72) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Ra grew in importance during the Old Kingdom and, around the beginning of the Fifth Dynasty, had essentially become an Egyptian state god. Although a common religious-ideological system prevailed throughout Old Kingdom Egypt centred on the divine authority of the king and a pantheon of deities and spirits, in general religious beliefs at this time were 'locally diverse and socially stratified'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  independent mortuary priests served cults at tombs dedicated to the afterlives of important individuals and local variation in the focus of worship remained an integral part of Egyptian religion. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  On the burial chamber walls of King Unas, who reigned c. 2375-2345 BCE, we find the first Pyramid Texts, 'the earliest large religious composition known from ancient Egypt'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ",
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            "description": "Snefru was the founder of the Fourth Dynasty, although he may have been the son of Huni, the last Third Dynasty king (Clayton 1994, 42; Baud 2010, 66). He mounted expeditions into the Sinai and Nubia and moved the royal burial ground to Dahshur (Clayton 1994, 43; Malek 2000, 97). The Westcar Papyrus 'mentions Snefru as an amiable pharaoh', and Clayton commands on his evident 'command of resources and manpower' (Clayton 1994, 43, 45). The sources do not comment on any contestations of his power, and he passed the throne to his son Khufu.§REF§(Lloyd 2010, xxxiv) Lloyd, Alan B. 2010. “Chronology.” In A Companion to Ancient Egypt, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 1:xxxii – xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/R95E4VDR§REF§ §REF§(Morby and Rozier 2014) Morby, John E., and Charlie Rozier. 2014. Dynasties of the World. 2nd ed., online edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acref/9780191780073.001.0001. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3C5IVS6E§REF§ §REF§(Clayton 1994, 42-45) Clayton, Peter A. 1994. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N9DP44W9§REF§ §REF§(Malek 2000, 97) Malek, Jaromir. 2000. “The Old Kingdom (2686-2160 BC).” In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 83–107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6AME4SP6§REF§ §REF§(Baud 2010) Baud, Michel. 2010. “The Old Kingdom.” In A Companion to Ancient Egypt, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 1:63–80. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HEHUKZFF.§REF§",
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                "general_description": "The Old Kingdom period of Egypt covers the Third to Sixth ruling Dynasties, a period stretching from about 2650 to 2150 BCE. Seshat divides this period into two groups, the 'Classic' Old Kingdom period, covering the First through Fifth Dynasties (roughly 2650-2350 BCE), and the 'Late' Old Kingdom, comprising the turbulent Sixth Dynasty (2350-2150 BCE). The Fifth Dynasty, with its complex and effective administrative systems, is considered to be the high point for the centralization of the Old Kingdom government.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the Old Kingdom of Egypt, a god-king based in Memphis extended his reach along the Nile river through a network of royal centres, military towers and agricultural domains. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 196) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  Few documents survive from the period; what evidence there is suggests that Egypt had become a centrally planned and administered state. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 95) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  During the Third Dynasty, high positions within the central administration were characteristically ‒ but not exclusively ‒ the preserve of the king's family. A notable exception was the chancellor and high priest Imhotep, the architect of Djoser's famous funerary complex which housed (among other buildings) the Step Pyramid. During the Fourth Dynasty, the number of officials from outside the king's family increased within the Egyptian administration, a trend which peaked in the Fifth Dynasty when the vizier became a powerful figure in his own right. The vizier oversaw the palace government's granaries and treasuries, within which there were specialized departments and hierarchies of scribes. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 46, 78) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  One of the best known literary works of the Old Kingdom, <i>The Maxims of Ptahhotep</i> ‒ an invaluable source on Egyptian officialdom ‒ was written by a vizier at the end of the Fifth Dynasty. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  According to Egyptologist Hratch Papazian, however, a true hierarchical bureaucracy emerged only in the Late Old Kingdom. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 67-68) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>Initially, control over the approximately 300,000 square kilometres of Egyptian territory outside of Memphis was exercised through royal centres called <i>hwt</i>, run by directly-appointed state officials. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. 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'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  One notable change that occurred between the Fifth to Sixth Dynasties was that control over the hwt gradually passed from the royal administration to a provincial nobility. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 108) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>A religious network of temples, mortuary complexes and local cults spread over the landscape of Egypt between 2650 and 2350 BCE. Long viewed as an incarnation of an ancient sky and falcon god called Horus, from the Fourth Dynasty onward the Egyptian king also was considered the son of a sun god, Ra. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 71-72) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Ra grew in importance during the Old Kingdom and, around the beginning of the Fifth Dynasty, had essentially become an Egyptian state god. Although a common religious-ideological system prevailed throughout Old Kingdom Egypt centred on the divine authority of the king and a pantheon of deities and spirits, in general religious beliefs at this time were 'locally diverse and socially stratified'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  independent mortuary priests served cults at tombs dedicated to the afterlives of important individuals and local variation in the focus of worship remained an integral part of Egyptian religion. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  On the burial chamber walls of King Unas, who reigned c. 2375-2345 BCE, we find the first Pyramid Texts, 'the earliest large religious composition known from ancient Egypt'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ",
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            "description": "Khufu inherited the throne from his father Snefru and is famous for his Great Pyramid at Giza (Clayton 1994, 45). Unfortunately, information about his reign is 'remarkably meagre', although he later acquired a reputation as a 'heartless despot' (Malek 2000, 88). When he died, the throne passed to his son Djedefre (Clayton 1994, 50).§REF§(Lloyd 2010, xxxiv) Lloyd, Alan B. 2010. “Chronology.” In A Companion to Ancient Egypt, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 1:xxxii – xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/R95E4VDR§REF§ §REF§(Morby and Rozier 2014) Morby, John E., and Charlie Rozier. 2014. Dynasties of the World. 2nd ed., online edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acref/9780191780073.001.0001. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3C5IVS6E§REF§ §REF§(Clayton 1994, 45-50) Clayton, Peter A. 1994. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N9DP44W9§REF§ §REF§(Malek 2000, 88-90) Malek, Jaromir. 2000. “The Old Kingdom (2686-2160 BC).” In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 83–107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6AME4SP6.§REF§",
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'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  Few documents survive from the period; what evidence there is suggests that Egypt had become a centrally planned and administered state. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 95) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  During the Third Dynasty, high positions within the central administration were characteristically ‒ but not exclusively ‒ the preserve of the king's family. A notable exception was the chancellor and high priest Imhotep, the architect of Djoser's famous funerary complex which housed (among other buildings) the Step Pyramid. During the Fourth Dynasty, the number of officials from outside the king's family increased within the Egyptian administration, a trend which peaked in the Fifth Dynasty when the vizier became a powerful figure in his own right. The vizier oversaw the palace government's granaries and treasuries, within which there were specialized departments and hierarchies of scribes. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 46, 78) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  One of the best known literary works of the Old Kingdom, <i>The Maxims of Ptahhotep</i> ‒ an invaluable source on Egyptian officialdom ‒ was written by a vizier at the end of the Fifth Dynasty. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  According to Egyptologist Hratch Papazian, however, a true hierarchical bureaucracy emerged only in the Late Old Kingdom. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 67-68) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>Initially, control over the approximately 300,000 square kilometres of Egyptian territory outside of Memphis was exercised through royal centres called <i>hwt</i>, run by directly-appointed state officials. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  At first there were no formal provincial boundaries; the hwt, a royal possession, might extend over several villages, large amounts of royal agricultural land, labourers, fields and cattle. The governor and staff of the hwt were responsible for irrigation works. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 80) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Chichester. §REF§  §REF§ (Malek 2000, 94) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  One notable change that occurred between the Fifth to Sixth Dynasties was that control over the hwt gradually passed from the royal administration to a provincial nobility. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 108) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>A religious network of temples, mortuary complexes and local cults spread over the landscape of Egypt between 2650 and 2350 BCE. Long viewed as an incarnation of an ancient sky and falcon god called Horus, from the Fourth Dynasty onward the Egyptian king also was considered the son of a sun god, Ra. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 71-72) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Ra grew in importance during the Old Kingdom and, around the beginning of the Fifth Dynasty, had essentially become an Egyptian state god. Although a common religious-ideological system prevailed throughout Old Kingdom Egypt centred on the divine authority of the king and a pantheon of deities and spirits, in general religious beliefs at this time were 'locally diverse and socially stratified'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  independent mortuary priests served cults at tombs dedicated to the afterlives of important individuals and local variation in the focus of worship remained an integral part of Egyptian religion. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  On the burial chamber walls of King Unas, who reigned c. 2375-2345 BCE, we find the first Pyramid Texts, 'the earliest large religious composition known from ancient Egypt'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ",
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            "description": "Djedefre inherited the throne from his father Khufu, but he was 'short-lived' and little is known about his reign (Clayton 1994, 50). When he died, the throne passed to another son of Khufu, named Khafre (Clayton 1994, 51).§REF§(Lloyd 2010, xxxiv) Lloyd, Alan B. 2010. “Chronology.” In A Companion to Ancient Egypt, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 1:xxxii – xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/R95E4VDR§REF§ §REF§(Morby and Rozier 2014) Morby, John E., and Charlie Rozier. 2014. Dynasties of the World. 2nd ed., online edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acref/9780191780073.001.0001. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3C5IVS6E§REF§ §REF§(Clayton 1994, 50-51) Clayton, Peter A. 1994. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N9DP44W9.§REF§",
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                "general_description": "The Old Kingdom period of Egypt covers the Third to Sixth ruling Dynasties, a period stretching from about 2650 to 2150 BCE. Seshat divides this period into two groups, the 'Classic' Old Kingdom period, covering the First through Fifth Dynasties (roughly 2650-2350 BCE), and the 'Late' Old Kingdom, comprising the turbulent Sixth Dynasty (2350-2150 BCE). The Fifth Dynasty, with its complex and effective administrative systems, is considered to be the high point for the centralization of the Old Kingdom government.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the Old Kingdom of Egypt, a god-king based in Memphis extended his reach along the Nile river through a network of royal centres, military towers and agricultural domains. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 196) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  Few documents survive from the period; what evidence there is suggests that Egypt had become a centrally planned and administered state. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 95) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  During the Third Dynasty, high positions within the central administration were characteristically ‒ but not exclusively ‒ the preserve of the king's family. A notable exception was the chancellor and high priest Imhotep, the architect of Djoser's famous funerary complex which housed (among other buildings) the Step Pyramid. During the Fourth Dynasty, the number of officials from outside the king's family increased within the Egyptian administration, a trend which peaked in the Fifth Dynasty when the vizier became a powerful figure in his own right. The vizier oversaw the palace government's granaries and treasuries, within which there were specialized departments and hierarchies of scribes. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 46, 78) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  One of the best known literary works of the Old Kingdom, <i>The Maxims of Ptahhotep</i> ‒ an invaluable source on Egyptian officialdom ‒ was written by a vizier at the end of the Fifth Dynasty. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  According to Egyptologist Hratch Papazian, however, a true hierarchical bureaucracy emerged only in the Late Old Kingdom. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 67-68) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>Initially, control over the approximately 300,000 square kilometres of Egyptian territory outside of Memphis was exercised through royal centres called <i>hwt</i>, run by directly-appointed state officials. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  At first there were no formal provincial boundaries; the hwt, a royal possession, might extend over several villages, large amounts of royal agricultural land, labourers, fields and cattle. The governor and staff of the hwt were responsible for irrigation works. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 80) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Chichester. §REF§  §REF§ (Malek 2000, 94) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  One notable change that occurred between the Fifth to Sixth Dynasties was that control over the hwt gradually passed from the royal administration to a provincial nobility. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 108) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>A religious network of temples, mortuary complexes and local cults spread over the landscape of Egypt between 2650 and 2350 BCE. Long viewed as an incarnation of an ancient sky and falcon god called Horus, from the Fourth Dynasty onward the Egyptian king also was considered the son of a sun god, Ra. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 71-72) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Ra grew in importance during the Old Kingdom and, around the beginning of the Fifth Dynasty, had essentially become an Egyptian state god. Although a common religious-ideological system prevailed throughout Old Kingdom Egypt centred on the divine authority of the king and a pantheon of deities and spirits, in general religious beliefs at this time were 'locally diverse and socially stratified'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  independent mortuary priests served cults at tombs dedicated to the afterlives of important individuals and local variation in the focus of worship remained an integral part of Egyptian religion. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  On the burial chamber walls of King Unas, who reigned c. 2375-2345 BCE, we find the first Pyramid Texts, 'the earliest large religious composition known from ancient Egypt'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ",
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            "description": "Like Djedefre, his immediate predecessor, Khafre was a son of Khufu. He built a pyramid at Giza as and has been credited with the Great Sphinx (Clayton 1994, 54-55). Clayton (1994, 51) writes that 'the country was prosperous' under his rule, but the sources do not provide details about Khafre's accession or any contestations of his power. On his death, the throne passed to his son Menkaure (Clayton 1994, 56).§REF§(Lloyd 2010, xxxiv) Lloyd, Alan B. 2010. “Chronology.” In A Companion to Ancient Egypt, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 1:xxxii – xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/R95E4VDR§REF§ §REF§(Morby and Rozier 2014) Morby, John E., and Charlie Rozier. 2014. Dynasties of the World. 2nd ed., online edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acref/9780191780073.001.0001. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3C5IVS6E§REF§ §REF§(Clayton 1994, 51-56) Clayton, Peter A. 1994. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N9DP44W9§REF§ §REF§(Malek 2000, 90, 97) Malek, Jaromir. 2000. “The Old Kingdom (2686-2160 BC).” In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 83–107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6AME4SP6.§REF§",
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            "predecessor": "Khafre / Chephren",
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            "name": "None",
            "culture_group": "Pharaonic_Egypt",
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                "general_description": "The Old Kingdom period of Egypt covers the Third to Sixth ruling Dynasties, a period stretching from about 2650 to 2150 BCE. Seshat divides this period into two groups, the 'Classic' Old Kingdom period, covering the First through Fifth Dynasties (roughly 2650-2350 BCE), and the 'Late' Old Kingdom, comprising the turbulent Sixth Dynasty (2350-2150 BCE). The Fifth Dynasty, with its complex and effective administrative systems, is considered to be the high point for the centralization of the Old Kingdom government.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the Old Kingdom of Egypt, a god-king based in Memphis extended his reach along the Nile river through a network of royal centres, military towers and agricultural domains. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 196) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  Few documents survive from the period; what evidence there is suggests that Egypt had become a centrally planned and administered state. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 95) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  During the Third Dynasty, high positions within the central administration were characteristically ‒ but not exclusively ‒ the preserve of the king's family. A notable exception was the chancellor and high priest Imhotep, the architect of Djoser's famous funerary complex which housed (among other buildings) the Step Pyramid. During the Fourth Dynasty, the number of officials from outside the king's family increased within the Egyptian administration, a trend which peaked in the Fifth Dynasty when the vizier became a powerful figure in his own right. The vizier oversaw the palace government's granaries and treasuries, within which there were specialized departments and hierarchies of scribes. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 46, 78) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  One of the best known literary works of the Old Kingdom, <i>The Maxims of Ptahhotep</i> ‒ an invaluable source on Egyptian officialdom ‒ was written by a vizier at the end of the Fifth Dynasty. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  According to Egyptologist Hratch Papazian, however, a true hierarchical bureaucracy emerged only in the Late Old Kingdom. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 67-68) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>Initially, control over the approximately 300,000 square kilometres of Egyptian territory outside of Memphis was exercised through royal centres called <i>hwt</i>, run by directly-appointed state officials. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  At first there were no formal provincial boundaries; the hwt, a royal possession, might extend over several villages, large amounts of royal agricultural land, labourers, fields and cattle. The governor and staff of the hwt were responsible for irrigation works. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 80) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Chichester. §REF§  §REF§ (Malek 2000, 94) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  One notable change that occurred between the Fifth to Sixth Dynasties was that control over the hwt gradually passed from the royal administration to a provincial nobility. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 108) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>A religious network of temples, mortuary complexes and local cults spread over the landscape of Egypt between 2650 and 2350 BCE. Long viewed as an incarnation of an ancient sky and falcon god called Horus, from the Fourth Dynasty onward the Egyptian king also was considered the son of a sun god, Ra. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 71-72) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Ra grew in importance during the Old Kingdom and, around the beginning of the Fifth Dynasty, had essentially become an Egyptian state god. Although a common religious-ideological system prevailed throughout Old Kingdom Egypt centred on the divine authority of the king and a pantheon of deities and spirits, in general religious beliefs at this time were 'locally diverse and socially stratified'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  independent mortuary priests served cults at tombs dedicated to the afterlives of important individuals and local variation in the focus of worship remained an integral part of Egyptian religion. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  On the burial chamber walls of King Unas, who reigned c. 2375-2345 BCE, we find the first Pyramid Texts, 'the earliest large religious composition known from ancient Egypt'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ",
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        {
            "id": 1735,
            "year_from": -2532,
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            "description": "Menkaure succeeded his father Khafre and was reportedly a 'benevolent' king (Clayton 1994, 56). Some form of contestation of his power is suggested by later reports of a pronouncement of the oracle of Buto that he would only rule for six years (Clayton 1994, 56). However, as with his predecessors, we lack precise details about his accession and reign. He left the throne to his son Shepseskaf, who completed his father's pyramid complex (Malek 2000, 91).§REF§(Lloyd 2010, xxxiv) Lloyd, Alan B. 2010. “Chronology.” In A Companion to Ancient Egypt, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 1:xxxii – xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/R95E4VDR§REF§ §REF§(Morby and Rozier 2014) Morby, John E., and Charlie Rozier. 2014. Dynasties of the World. 2nd ed., online edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acref/9780191780073.001.0001. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3C5IVS6E§REF§ §REF§(Clayton 1994, 45-50) Clayton, Peter A. 1994. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N9DP44W9§REF§ §REF§(Malek 2000, 91) Malek, Jaromir. 2000. “The Old Kingdom (2686-2160 BC).” In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 83–107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6AME4SP6.§REF§",
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            "predecessor": "Menkaure / Mykerinos",
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            "name": "None",
            "culture_group": "Pharaonic_Egypt",
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                "general_description": "The Old Kingdom period of Egypt covers the Third to Sixth ruling Dynasties, a period stretching from about 2650 to 2150 BCE. Seshat divides this period into two groups, the 'Classic' Old Kingdom period, covering the First through Fifth Dynasties (roughly 2650-2350 BCE), and the 'Late' Old Kingdom, comprising the turbulent Sixth Dynasty (2350-2150 BCE). The Fifth Dynasty, with its complex and effective administrative systems, is considered to be the high point for the centralization of the Old Kingdom government.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the Old Kingdom of Egypt, a god-king based in Memphis extended his reach along the Nile river through a network of royal centres, military towers and agricultural domains. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 196) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  Few documents survive from the period; what evidence there is suggests that Egypt had become a centrally planned and administered state. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 95) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  During the Third Dynasty, high positions within the central administration were characteristically ‒ but not exclusively ‒ the preserve of the king's family. A notable exception was the chancellor and high priest Imhotep, the architect of Djoser's famous funerary complex which housed (among other buildings) the Step Pyramid. During the Fourth Dynasty, the number of officials from outside the king's family increased within the Egyptian administration, a trend which peaked in the Fifth Dynasty when the vizier became a powerful figure in his own right. The vizier oversaw the palace government's granaries and treasuries, within which there were specialized departments and hierarchies of scribes. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 46, 78) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  One of the best known literary works of the Old Kingdom, <i>The Maxims of Ptahhotep</i> ‒ an invaluable source on Egyptian officialdom ‒ was written by a vizier at the end of the Fifth Dynasty. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  According to Egyptologist Hratch Papazian, however, a true hierarchical bureaucracy emerged only in the Late Old Kingdom. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 67-68) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>Initially, control over the approximately 300,000 square kilometres of Egyptian territory outside of Memphis was exercised through royal centres called <i>hwt</i>, run by directly-appointed state officials. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  At first there were no formal provincial boundaries; the hwt, a royal possession, might extend over several villages, large amounts of royal agricultural land, labourers, fields and cattle. The governor and staff of the hwt were responsible for irrigation works. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 80) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Chichester. §REF§  §REF§ (Malek 2000, 94) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  One notable change that occurred between the Fifth to Sixth Dynasties was that control over the hwt gradually passed from the royal administration to a provincial nobility. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 108) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>A religious network of temples, mortuary complexes and local cults spread over the landscape of Egypt between 2650 and 2350 BCE. Long viewed as an incarnation of an ancient sky and falcon god called Horus, from the Fourth Dynasty onward the Egyptian king also was considered the son of a sun god, Ra. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 71-72) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Ra grew in importance during the Old Kingdom and, around the beginning of the Fifth Dynasty, had essentially become an Egyptian state god. Although a common religious-ideological system prevailed throughout Old Kingdom Egypt centred on the divine authority of the king and a pantheon of deities and spirits, in general religious beliefs at this time were 'locally diverse and socially stratified'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  independent mortuary priests served cults at tombs dedicated to the afterlives of important individuals and local variation in the focus of worship remained an integral part of Egyptian religion. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  On the burial chamber walls of King Unas, who reigned c. 2375-2345 BCE, we find the first Pyramid Texts, 'the earliest large religious composition known from ancient Egypt'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ",
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