Crisis Consequence List

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            "id": 59,
            "year_from": -2200,
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            "description": "By the end of Shar-Kali-Sharri's reign in 2193 BCE the empire was unravelling. The invasions from the Zagros mountains by the Gutian people that had begun in his father's reign were becoming more frequent. At the same time, he faced rebellions from vassal kings who fought against the high taxes they paid to defend against the Gutian invasions. It is also  likely that a period of drought, and a resulting famine, around 2200 BCE contributed to the downfall of the empire as civil unrest increased among the population and the major site of Tell Leilan (as well as other cities) was abandoned in search of wetter areas. Nomadic tribes also migrated to find water sources which brought conflict between the groups. Upon Shar-Kali-Sharri's death in 2193 BCE, the state descended into anarchy. Four kings ruled in quick succession for three years, but it was not until Dudu came to the throne around 2189 BCE that some stability was seen, however by this point the empire had ceased to exist and he likely controlled only Akkad.§REF§Cookson, Evangeline; Hill, Daniel J.; Lawrence, Dan (1 June 2019). \"Impacts of long term climate change during the collapse of the Akkadian Empire\". Journal of Archaeological Science. 106: 1-9.§REF§ §REF§John Haywood (2015-06-04). Chronicles of the Ancient World. Quercus Publishing Ltd.§REF§ §REF§Nicholas Kraus, The Weapon of Blood: Politics and Intrigue at the Decline of Akkad, Zeitschrift f√ºr Assyriologie & Vorderasiatische Arch√§ologie, vol. 108, iss. 1, pp. 1-9, June 2018.§REF§",
            "note": null,
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            "tag": "TRS",
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            "crisis_case_id": "iq_akkad_emp@end",
            "is_first_100": true,
            "name": "Collapse of Akkadian Empire",
            "decline": "P",
            "collapse": "A",
            "epidemic": "A",
            "downward_mobility": "A",
            "extermination": "A",
            "uprising": "P",
            "revolution": "A",
            "successful_revolution": "None",
            "civil_war": "P",
            "century_plus": "A",
            "fragmentation": "A",
            "capital": "A",
            "conquest": "P",
            "assassination": "SU",
            "depose": "SU",
            "constitution": "A",
            "labor": "A",
            "unfree_labor": "A",
            "suffrage": "A",
            "public_goods": "A",
            "religion": "A",
            "polity": {
                "id": 476,
                "name": "IqAkkad",
                "start_year": -2270,
                "end_year": -2083,
                "long_name": "Akkadian Empire",
                "new_name": "iq_akkad_emp",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The polity at Akkad in Iraq is often thought to represent the \"first world empire\". §REF§ (Brisch 2013, 120) N Brisch. 2013. History and chronology. In: H. Crawford (ed.), <i>The Sumerian World.</i>London and New York: Routledge, 111-130. §REF§  §REF§ Liverani 1993 §REF§  Its name derives from city of Akkad (Agade, location still undetermined), which was a capital of the kingdom. The period is also called Sargonic Period after the founder of Akkad and the ruling dynasty - Sargon (Sharrukin). The end of Akkadian empire seems to be associated with the invasion of the Gutians, and is correlated with some climate changes. §REF§ (Weiss 2002, 22) H Weiss. 2002. Akkadian. Akkadian Empire. In: P. N. Peregrine &amp; M. Ember, <i>Encyclopaedia of Prehistory. South and Southeast Asia, Volume 8</i>. New York: Springer, 21-24. §REF§ <br>Sargon's power mainly depended on his army, which was probably a regular standing army. §REF§ (Hamblin 2006, 74-75) W J Hamblin. 2006. <i>Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC</i>. New York: Routledge. §REF§  Foster (2016) describes an Empire as \"an entity put together and maintained by force, with provinces administered by officials sent out from the capital in the heartland\" and claims this is \"precisely what we see in the Akkadian period.\" §REF§ (Foster 2016, 80) Benjamin R Foster. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London. §REF§  Barjamovic (2012) notes that the formation of the private royal army and the construction of regional military strongholds together with the division of the conquered territories into provinces was the key to Akkad's \"permanent imperial presence.\" §REF§ (Barjamović 2012, 130) G Barjamović. 2012. Mesopotamian Empires. In: P. Fibiger Bang &amp; W. Scheidel (eds.), <i>The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 120-160. §REF§ <br>To increase control from the center, Sargon appointed Akkadian governors (ensi) in Sumerian cities in a place of older Sumerian rulers §REF§ (Hamblin 2006, 75) W J Hamblin. 2006. <i>Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC</i>. New York: Routledge. §REF§  although some cities continued to be ruled by a local ensi. §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 138) Mario Liverani. Soraia Tabatabai trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§  In fact, all local officials probably had a great deal of de facto independence. §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 138) Mario Liverani. Soraia Tabatabai trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§  As an additional means of control, Sargon sent his daughter -  Enheduanna - to be the highest priestess of god Sin in Uruk. This practice was continued by his descendants. §REF§ (Franke 1995, 831-841) S Franke. 1995. Kings of Akkad: Sargon and Naram-Sin. In: J. M. Sasson (ed.) <i>Civilization of Ancient Near East</i>. Peabody: Hendrikson, 831-841. §REF§ <br>Naram-Sin, a grandson of Sargon, was one of the greatest ruler of Akkad in terms of military conquest and administration. His reforms included a unified system of measurements. He undertook also the process of renovation of Ekur temple and on his death was deified and treated as protective deity. §REF§ (Franke 1995, 384) S Franke. 1995. Kings of Akkad: Sargon and Naram-Sin. In: J. M. Sasson (ed.) <i>Civilization of Ancient Near East</i>. Peabody: Hendrikson, 831-841. §REF§  Akkadian was the official language of empire, and all official documents were written in Akkadian, although Sumerian still was in use, especially in Southern Mesopotamia. §REF§ (Van de Mieroop 2007, 67) §REF§ <br><br/>",
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                    "capital_city": "Babylon (Hillah)",
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                "id": 477,
                "name": "IqUrIII",
                "start_year": -2112,
                "end_year": -2004,
                "long_name": "Ur - Dynasty III",
                "new_name": "iq_ur_dyn_3",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The founder of the Third Dynasty of Ur was Ur-Nammu who probably came from Uruk, however he was a military commander (<i>šagina</i>) of Ur, and later its independent ruler who conducted  victorious fights with the Gutians and took by force other lands of Sumer and consolidated the whole Akkad and Sumer. Moreover, he also conquered Elam and even reached Susa. His political power was related not only to his conquest, but mainly to his cultural and legislative activities. He was a builder of few great temples and was a lawgiver of one of the oldest 'code' called <i>Code of Ur-Nammu</i>. §REF§ Stępień 2009, 11-12 §REF§  His son - Shulgi continued father's politics and he \"reorganized system and territorial administrative structure, but also much enlarged its lands and increased international prestige, turning it into a dominant power of the region.\" §REF§ Stępień 2009, 16 §REF§  He seized among other Simurrum, Lullubum, Kimaš, Hurti, Karahar, Šašrum, Harši. He used the political marriages and various alliances as well to cement his state  (e. g. his daughters married the ruler of Marhaši and the ensi of Anshan). Two sons of Shulgi reigned 9 years each - Amar-Sin(Amar-Suen)and Shu-Sin(Su-Suen). Amar-Suen led few victorious campaigns against Urbilum, Šašrum and Hurrians. Su-Suen fight against Amorites, however his strategy was more defensive than offensive. The last king from this dynasty -Ibbi-Sin was less successful in fights with Amorites, Gutians and Elamites. After he was betrayed by the governor of Isin named Ishbi- Irra, the Ur became much weaker. Eventually the city of Ur was captured and looted in 2010 and Ibbi-Sin lost his throne and was transported to Susa. Generally speaking, the Ur III period is perceived as a flowering time when many significant changes took place, especially on the field of literature, culture and architecture. However, many important transformation concerning administration, army as well as the position of the ruler were happened. Ur is described often in the literature as \"the centralized bureaucratic state\" §REF§ Ur 2014, 256 §REF§  with many  civil servants and elaborated administration structures. According to Jason Ur: \"The kings of Ur created centralized temple and above all royal administrative systems, and attempted to resuscitate a Sumerian identity. §REF§ Ur 2013, 143 §REF§  The state of Ur consisted of three main zones: core, periphery and vassal territories. The core encompasses lands of Sumer and Akkad and it includes 18 provinces. The peripheral areas are defined as the land which were attached by Shulgi (in a consequence of his military activity) such as eastern Iraq, the western provinces of Kurdistan, Luristan, Khuzestan. The third zone, so called \"sphere of influence\" included vassal states. §REF§ Stępień 2009, 55-60 §REF§  Besides its military achievements, the marital alliances were often used tool to establish or broaden the power of Ur's kings.",
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                    "capital_city": "Babylon (Hillah)",
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            "description": "Collapse of Old Kingdom centralized state. Coded for population decline but not collapse: texts surviving from later periods speak of depopulation (along with famine, drought etc.) in the First Intermediate Period, though they are ideologically motivated to exaggerate the severity of the chaos before the centralized state re-emerged in the Middle Kingdom (Hassan 2007: 370). Settlement data not good enough to track population growth and decline in detail. Epidemics possible but not proven. Elite downward mobility: collapse of centralized government, followed c. 25 years later by the efforts of provincial elite to reestablish authority (Hassan 2007: 358). Civil war: war between rivals to the throne after the collapse of the Old Kingdom royal authority (Hassan 2007: 358). These intermittent conflicts may have lasted over a century: Hassan (2007: 358) makes a comparison to the Hundred Years' War in Europe. Territorial fragmentation certainly occurred (Hassan 2007), and conflict with \"Asiatics\" but no complete conquest of Egypt by external powers.§REF§Hassan 2007: Hassan, Fekri A. 2007. Droughts, Famine and the Collapse of the Old Kingdom: Re-Reading Ipuwer.‚Äù In The Archaeology and Art of Ancient Egypt: Essays in Honor of David B. O'Connor, edited by Zahi A. Hawass and Janet E. Richards, 357-78. Cairo: Conseil suprême des Antiquités égyptiennes | Goldstone, Jack A. Revolutions: A Very Short Introduction. OUP USA, 2014 | Sorokin, Pitirim A. The Sociology of Revolution. Howard Fertig, 1967§REF§",
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            "crisis_case_id": "eg_old_k_2@end",
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            "name": "Collapse of Old Kingdom state",
            "decline": "IP",
            "collapse": "A",
            "epidemic": "SU",
            "downward_mobility": "P",
            "extermination": "A",
            "uprising": "A",
            "revolution": "P",
            "successful_revolution": "P",
            "civil_war": "P",
            "century_plus": "A",
            "fragmentation": "P",
            "capital": "A",
            "conquest": "A",
            "assassination": "A",
            "depose": "SU",
            "constitution": "IP",
            "labor": "A",
            "unfree_labor": "A",
            "suffrage": "A",
            "public_goods": "A",
            "religion": "A",
            "polity": {
                "id": 517,
                "name": "EgOldK2",
                "start_year": -2350,
                "end_year": -2150,
                "long_name": "Egypt - Late Old Kingdom",
                "new_name": "eg_old_k_2",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The Old Kingdom period of Egypt covers the Third to Sixth ruling Dynasties, a period stretching from about 2650 to 2150 BCE. Seshat divides this period into two groups, the 'Classic' Old Kingdom period, covering the First through Fifth Dynasties (roughly 2650-2350 BCE), and the 'Late' Old Kingdom, comprising turbulent Sixth Dynasty (2350-2150 BCE). This dynasty witnessed a decentralization of the king's authority, leading to the First Intermediate Period, or Period of the Regions.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The kings of the Sixth Dynasty were still based at the capital in Memphis. Lower Nubia, over 1000 km away from the Egyptian centre, was organized into six small chiefdoms under the Sixth Dynasty. §REF§ (Spalinger 2013, 463) A. Spalinger. 2013. 'The Organization of the Pharaonic Army (Old to New Kingdom)', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 393-478. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  The <i>hwt</i>, once a royal possession and conveyor of central authority, was now dominated by a powerful provincial nobility that viewed their area of control as hereditary property §REF§ (Hassan 1993, 567) Kekri Hassan. 1993. 'Town and Village in Ancient Egypt: Ecology, Society and Urbanization', in <i>The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns</i>, edited by Thurstan Shaw, Paul Sinclair, Bassey Andah and Alex Okpoko, 551-69. London: Routledge. §REF§  - a development enshrined in the governor's new title, 'great chief of the nome'. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 108) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  It appears that military institutions did not change significantly from the Early to the Late Old Kingdom: there was still no permanent, state-run standing army. §REF§ (Spalinger 2013, 468-70) A. Spalinger. 2013. 'The Organization of the Pharaonic Army (Old to New Kingdom)', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 393-478. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>Long viewed as an incarnation of an ancient sky and falcon god called Horus, from the Fourth Dynasty onward the Egyptian king also was considered the son of a sun god, Ra. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 71-72) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Ra grew in importance during the Old Kingdom and, around the beginning of the Fifth Dynasty, had essentially become an Egyptian state god. During the Sixth Dynasty the sun temples in which Ra was worshipped became large institutions maintained by donations and landed property. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 99) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  In contrast to the earlier age, during the Sixth Dynasty it was promotion within the sun temples that became the route to high office within the palatial bureaucracy. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 201) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  Priests would not become full-time professionals until the New Kingdom: at this time, they worked rotating shifts. §REF§ (Doxey 2001, 69-70) D. M. Doxey. 2001. 'Priesthood', in <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 3</i>, edited by D. B. Redford, 69-70. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Nevertheless, large-scale temple building for a wide range of local gods, including Khenti-amentiu at Abydos; Min at Koptos; Hathor at Dendera; Horus at Hierankonpolis; and Satet at Elephantine, underlines the florescence of religious expression as well as the command of a large labour pool by the king and local elites more generally during the Sixth Dynasty. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 105) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>The growing power of local elites, commanding religious and administrative authority as well as great agricultural wealth and control over labour in the form of corvée dues, undermined the central power of Sixth-Dynasty rulers. After the death of King Pepi II (r. 2278-2184 BCE), there were repeated contests over the succession. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Chichester. §REF§  Eventually, these conflicts, coupled with the declining authority of the kings and possibly periods of famine caused by successive harvest failures due to poor Nile flooding, led to the collapse of centralized authority and the onset of the First Intermediate Period, or Period of the Regions.",
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            "other_polity": {
                "id": 518,
                "name": "EgRegns",
                "start_year": -2150,
                "end_year": -2016,
                "long_name": "Egypt - Period of the Regions",
                "new_name": "eg_regions",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The Period of the Regions, or the First Intermediate Period of Egypt, refers to the interval between the Old and the Middle Kingdoms. There was no single capital at this time. Instead, there were several powerful hereditary rulers scattered throughout the region, including the Herakleopolitan kings in the north and the Theban Eleventh Dynasty in the south. §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  §REF§ (Seidlmayer 2000, 127) Stephan Seidlmayer. 2000. 'The First Intermediate Period (c. 2160-2055 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 108-36. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the Period of the Regions, different local rulers vied for control of the former provinces (the nomes of the Late Old Kingdom). In Upper Egypt, around Thebes, the Eleventh Dynasty was able to establish a centralized system of regional administration. Interestingly, this dynasty lacked the powerful provincial nomarchs that characterized the Late Old Kingdom, which perhaps presages the unitary state of the Middle Kingdom. §REF§ (Seidlmayer 2000, 127) Stephan Seidlmayer. 2000. 'The First Intermediate Period (c. 2160-2055 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 108-36. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Willems 2010, 84) Harco Willems. 2010. 'The First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 81-100. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  §REF§ (Seidlmayer 2000, 126) Stephan Seidlmayer. 2000. 'The First Intermediate Period (c. 2160-2055 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 108-36. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>At this early date, however, the Theban Kingdom was relatively unimportant and removed from developments elsewhere in Egypt. §REF§ (Seidlmayer 2000, 127) Stephan Seidlmayer. 2000. 'The First Intermediate Period (c. 2160-2055 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 108-36. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Further south along the Nile river, a local governor at Mo'alla, Ankhtifi, waged war on his own behalf without deferring to royal power and claimed authority over multiple southern nomes. §REF§ (Seidlmayer 2003, 118-21) §REF§  The political fragmentation of the period is further illustrated by the 'glaring gap' in monument-building across Egypt. §REF§ (Seidlmayer 2000, 110) Stephan Seidlmayer. 2000. 'The First Intermediate Period (c. 2160-2055 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 108-36. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Nevertheless, provincial rulers did command sufficient resources to build monumental <i>mastaba</i> tombs and the Theban Kingdom is notable for its rock-cut <i>saff</i> tombs. §REF§ (Seidlmayer 2000, 116, 124) Stephan Seidlmayer. 2000. 'The First Intermediate Period (c. 2160-2055 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 108-36. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>Although the Intermediate Periods of Egypt are popularly thought of as being synonymous with disruption and a downturn in fortunes for the Egyptian people, several Egyptologists now argue that this assumption is misleading, at least for the First period: they instead contend that economic productivity was generally high during the late Old Kingdom and remained so through the Period of the Regions. §REF§ (Seidlmayer 2000, 113) Stephan Seidlmayer. 2000. 'The First Intermediate Period (c. 2160-2055 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 108-36. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  The main difference was that the king and his court lost power and access to much of this wealth, as the power of local rulers grew vis-à-vis the central state. In fact, despite its portrayal in Middle Kingdom literature as a time of depression, the First Intermediate Period was characterized by dynamism and creativity. §REF§ (Seidlmayer 2000, 136) Stephan Seidlmayer. 2000. 'The First Intermediate Period (c. 2160-2055 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 108-36. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Popular culture flourished and evidence from burials shows that local populations enjoyed 'conspicuous, if modest, wealth'. §REF§ (Seidlmayer 2000, 136) Stephan Seidlmayer. 2000. 'The First Intermediate Period (c. 2160-2055 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 108-36. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Morris 2010, 66-69) Ellen Morris. 2010. '\"Lo, Nobles Lament, the Poor Rejoice\": State Formation in the Wake of Social Flux', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by G. M. Schwartz and J. J. Nichols, 58-71. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ ",
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            "year_from": -1700,
            "year_to": -1700,
            "description": "Collapse of Middle Kingdom centralized state, with Egypt fragmenting into territories controlled by rival powers (Bourriau 2000), also presumably civil war between these powers? Elite downward mobility coded present as old royal centres abandoned, old dynasties replaced by incomers: presumably old elite clustered round the rulers also suffered (Bourriau 2000). Not extermination, as the Thirteenth Dynasty continued to rule from Thebes, though they had lost control of Lower Egypt to the Hyksos Dynasty, of western Asian origin. Recent scholarship doesn't see this as a \"conquest\" by the Hyksos, rather the product of population movements from Asia to Egypt and emergence of local dynasty in the north after the weakening of the Middle Kingdom state. Population decline possible as texts mention famine (Ryholt 1997: 306) but not proven. Ruler killed: Seqenenre of the 17th Dynasty killed in battle trying to expel the Hyksos from the north (Clayton 1994: 96–97).§REF§Bourriau: Bourriau, Janine. 2000. The Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-1550 BC).‚Äù In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 184-217. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§ §REF§Clayton 1996: Clayton, Peter A. 1994. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson.§REF§ §REF§Ryholt 1997: Ryholt, K. S. B. 1997. The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press.§REF§",
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            "crisis_case_id": "eg_middle_k@end",
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            "name": "Collapse of Middle Kingdom state",
            "decline": "SU",
            "collapse": "A",
            "epidemic": "A",
            "downward_mobility": "IP",
            "extermination": "A",
            "uprising": "A",
            "revolution": "A",
            "successful_revolution": "None",
            "civil_war": "IP",
            "century_plus": "A",
            "fragmentation": "P",
            "capital": "SU",
            "conquest": "A",
            "assassination": "P",
            "depose": "SU",
            "constitution": "A",
            "labor": "A",
            "unfree_labor": "A",
            "suffrage": "A",
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            "religion": "A",
            "polity": {
                "id": 519,
                "name": "EgMidKg",
                "start_year": -2016,
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                "long_name": "Egypt - Middle Kingdom",
                "new_name": "eg_middle_k",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "After a phase of decentralized state power during the Period of the Regions (or First Intermediate Period), Egypt became unified once again during the Middle Kingdom (Eleventh, Twelfth and Thirteenth Dynasties, 2016‒1700 BCE), experiencing a 'golden age'. §REF§ (Callender 2000, 171) Gae Callender. 2000. 'The Middle Kingdom Renaissance (c. 2055-1650 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 137-71. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Achievements in art, architecture, writing and religion ‒ coupled with a growing 'middle class' and the increased importance of scribes ‒ reached their peak during this period, particularly under Amenemhat III (r. 1831‒1786 BCE). §REF§ (Callender 2000, 156) Gae Callender. 2000. 'The Middle Kingdom Renaissance (c. 2055-1650 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 137-71. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Middle Kingdom king ruled via royal decree, §REF§ (Ezzamel 2004, 502) Mahmoud Ezzamel. 2004. 'Work Organization in the Middle Kingdom, Ancient Egypt'. <i>Organization</i> 11 (4): 497-537. §REF§  but he and his officials were responsive to petitions from the people. We lack detailed information about the royal palace, although Stephen Quirke suggests that the terms <i>k3p</i> and <i>hnty</i> might refer to an inner and outer palace respectively. §REF§ (Pagliari 2012, 267-269) Giulia Pagliari. 2012. 'Function and Significance of Ancient Egyptian Royal Palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite Period: A Lexicographical Study and Its Possible Connection with the Archaeological Evidence'. PhD thesis, University of Birmingham. §REF§  The first Middle Kingdom capital was at Thebes in Upper Egypt, but was moved during the Twelfth Dynasty to El-Lisht at the neck of the Delta in Lower Egypt. From this new location, the monarchy exerted more centralized control over the country and expanded the bureaucratic system. §REF§ (Callender 2000, 146-47) Gae Callender. 2000. 'The Middle Kingdom Renaissance (c. 2055-1650 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 137-71. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Administrative reforms under Senusret III (r. 1878-1839 BCE) resulted in the reorganization of the provinces around 1860 BCE: 'the old system of hereditary nomarchs was destroyed and replaced by a bureaucratic machinery, the operators of which owed their allegiance to the king'. §REF§ (Ezzamel 2004, 502) Mahmoud Ezzamel. 2004. 'Work Organization in the Middle Kingdom, Ancient Egypt'. <i>Organization</i> 11 (4): 497-537. §REF§  §REF§ (Callender 2000, 163-64) Gae Callender. 2000. 'The Middle Kingdom Renaissance (c. 2055-1650 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 137-71. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  For the first time since the Classic Old Kingdom, the central state had become powerful enough to directly command all the regions of Egypt.<br>During the Middle Kingdom, the nome (province) of the Old Kingdom was replaced by a 'city district' centred on an urban complex and headed by a <i>hat-ya</i> ('mayor'). §REF§ (Haring 2010, 225) Ben Haring. 2010. 'Administration and Law: Pharaonic', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 218-36. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  The mayors received orders from the central government, specifically the vizier, and were responsible for tax collection and supervising the royal domains. §REF§ (Haring 2010, 225) Ben Haring. 2010. 'Administration and Law: Pharaonic', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 218-36. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  Thebes was the administrative centre for southern Upper Egypt and Lower Nubia. §REF§ (Quirke 2001, 16) Stephen G. J. Quirke. 2001. 'Administration: State Administration', in <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by D. B. Redford, 12-16. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  The army was professional in the Middle Kingdom. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 105) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  The king remained a divine ruler, legitimated as the guarantor and preserver of <i>maat</i>, the principle of harmony and cosmic order. §REF§ (Pu 2005, 86) Muzhou Pu. 2005. <i>Enemies of Civilization: Attitudes towards Foreigners in Ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China</i>. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Szpakowska 2010, 521) Kasia Szpakowska. 2010. 'Religion in Society: Pharaonic', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 507-25. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>Amenemhat III laid the foundations for a much larger Egyptian population (in his time, the country still had under two million inhabitants). §REF§ (Willems 2013, 343) Harco Willems. 2013. 'Nomarchs and Local Potentates: The Provincial Administration in the Middle Kingdom', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 341-92. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  Using giant waterwheels and a canal from the Faiyum to the Nile, the Egyptians managed to improve irrigation in this fertile region and control flooding: a measure of sophisticated technology, strong central control, and a good deal of foresight. Another indication of the sophistication of Middle Kingdom technology is that the scribe responsible for the famed Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, dating to the Second Intermediate Period, noted that the work was copied from a Middle Kingdom original. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 134) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  Literacy and a culture of storytelling were widespread: the Tale of the Eloquent Peasant, Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor, Story of Sinuhe, Account of the Sporting King, and many others represent the birth of written fiction in Egypt. §REF§ (Van Blerk 2006) N. J. Van Blerk. 2006. 'The Concept of Law and Justice in Ancient Egypt, with Specific Reference to The Tale of The Eloquent Peasant'. Master's dissertation, University of South Africa. Available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/2447/dissertation.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/2447/dissertation.pdf</a>. §REF§  The Tale of King Cheops' Court reveals a lively interest at this time in the history of Classic Old Kingdom Egypt. §REF§ (Enmarch 2010) Roland Enmarch. 2010. 'Middle Kingdom Literature', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 2</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 663-85. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ ",
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                "id": 520,
                "name": "EgThebH",
                "start_year": -1720,
                "end_year": -1567,
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                "new_name": "eg_thebes_hyksos",
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                "general_description": "During the Second Intermediate Period (c. 1720‒1567 BCE), or alternatively 'the Hyksos period and the Era of the Second Theban Petty State', §REF§ (Morenz and Popko 2010, 102) Ludwig D. Morenz and Lutz Popko. 2010. 'The Second Intermediate Period and the New Kingdom', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 101-19. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  Egypt as a whole once again experienced a phase of political decentralization, split into regions controlled by competing dynasties. The Hyksos (Fifteenth Dynasty) occupied the north. The Hyksos were a non-native Egyptian ruling clan who invaded Egypt from the Levant, establishing a military and bureaucratic stronghold at Avaris in the Nile Delta. §REF§ (Bourriau 2003, 173) Janine Bourriau. 2003. 'The Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650-1550 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 172-206. Oxford. Oxford University Press. §REF§  The area subject to Hyksos authority spread west and east across the delta and, at the polity's peak in the mid-16th century BCE, probably reached as far south as Middle Egypt. §REF§ (Bourriau 2003, 182) Janine Bourriau. 2003. 'The Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650-1550 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 172-206. Oxford. Oxford University Press. §REF§  The Nile Valley south of Hermopolis was dominated by a rival power, the Theban kings of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Dynasties. §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xxxv) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  §REF§ (Bourriau 2003, 172-73) Janine Bourriau. 2003. 'The Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650-1550 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 172-206. Oxford. Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Political fragmentation characterizes Egypt after the Middle Kingdom and the Hyksos invasion. In Upper Egypt, the Theban kingdom ruled by Egyptians (the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Dynasties) claimed a continuity with the Middle Kingdom, lasting about 100 years up to the end of the period. §REF§ (Wegner 2015, 68) Josef Wegner. 2015. 'A Royal Necropolis at South Abydos: New Light on Egypt's Second Intermediate Period'. <i>Near Eastern Archaeology</i> 78 (2): 68-78. §REF§  §REF§ (Morenz and Popko 2010, 106-08) Ludwig D. Morenz and Lutz Popko. 2010. 'The Second Intermediate Period and the New Kingdom', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 101-19. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  Egyptian archaeologist Josef Wegner has proposed based on finds near Abydos that a short-lived independent kingdom, an 'Abydos Dynasty', existed alongside the Theban Sixteenth Dynasty but 'lost their independence as part of political events that led up to the Theban ascendancy' of the Seventeenth Dynasty. §REF§ (Wegner 2015, 73) Josef Wegner. 2015. 'A Royal Necropolis at South Abydos: New Light on Egypt's Second Intermediate Period'. <i>Near Eastern Archaeology</i> 78 (2): 68-78. §REF§ <br>Unfortunately, due to the disjointed nature of Egyptian politics at the time and the inconsistent material, §REF§ (Bourriau 2003, 172-73) Janine Bourriau. 2003. 'The Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650-1550 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 172-206. Oxford. Oxford University Press. §REF§  very little can be said about the population of the region during this period. The provincial organization of Theban Egypt at this time saw the king employ garrison commanders side-by-side with governors, or sometimes combined into one office. This may suggest 'a general militarization of the provinces'. §REF§ (Shirley 2013, 557) J. J. Shirley. 2013. 'Crisis and Restructuring of the State: From the Second Intermediate Period to the Advent of the Ramesses', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 521-606. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  The governors of the provinces were often married directly into the family of the Upper Egyptian king. §REF§ (Shirley 2013, 557) J. J. Shirley. 2013. 'Crisis and Restructuring of the State: From the Second Intermediate Period to the Advent of the Ramesses', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 521-606. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  At this time Upper Egypt was relatively poor and weak in relation to Lower Egypt. Among the achievements of the Hyksos administration at Avaris was the copying of the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, which required a scribe trained to the highest degree of skill and with access to a specialized mathematical archive, most likely at the Temple of Ptah at Memphis. §REF§ (Bourriau 2003, 181) Janine Bourriau. 2003. 'The Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650-1550 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 172-206. Oxford. Oxford University Press. §REF§  By contrast, although they carried out renovations of ancient Egyptian temples and portrayed themselves as restorers of order and harmony in the old pharaonic style, the Theban rulers and elite were cut off from the scholarly legacy of the Middle Kingdom because they lacked access to the centres of scribal learning at Memphis. §REF§ (Bourriau 2003, 188, 193) Janine Bourriau. 2003. 'The Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650-1550 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 172-206. Oxford. Oxford University Press. §REF§  In order to maintain the crucial funerary rituals, they were obliged to create new compilations of texts (including one of the earliest known examples of the spell book we know as the Book of the Dead. §REF§ (Bourriau 2003, 193) Janine Bourriau. 2003. 'The Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650-1550 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 172-206. Oxford. Oxford University Press. §REF§ ",
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        {
            "id": 98,
            "year_from": -1500,
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            "description": "The last monarch of the Old Kingdom reigned until about 1500 BCE, after which the kingdom began a steady decline. They were under constant attack, mainly from the Kaska, and the period entered a phase of reduced territory, lack of records, weakness and obscurity. From 1430 BCE, from the reign of Tudhaliya I, the polity segues in to the Hittite Empire.§REF§Bryce T. R. (2005) The Kingdom of the Hittites, New York: Oxford University Press§REF§ §REF§O.R. (1966). The Hittites. Penguin.§REF§",
            "note": null,
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            "crisis_case_id": "tr_hatti_old_k@end",
            "is_first_100": false,
            "name": "Fall of Old Kingdom of Hatti",
            "decline": "IP",
            "collapse": "A",
            "epidemic": "A",
            "downward_mobility": "P",
            "extermination": "A",
            "uprising": "A",
            "revolution": "A",
            "successful_revolution": "None",
            "civil_war": "A",
            "century_plus": "A",
            "fragmentation": "A",
            "capital": "A",
            "conquest": "P",
            "assassination": "A",
            "depose": "A",
            "constitution": "A",
            "labor": "A",
            "unfree_labor": "A",
            "suffrage": "A",
            "public_goods": "A",
            "religion": "A",
            "polity": {
                "id": 162,
                "name": "TrHatOK",
                "start_year": -1650,
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                "long_name": "Hatti - Old Kingdom",
                "new_name": "tr_hatti_old_k",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The early period of the Hittite Kingdom lasted from about 1650 to 1500 BCE and is known as the Old Kingdom. The polity emerged after a group of Indo-European speakers migrated c. 2000 BCE from either the Causasus or the Bosphorus and Dardanelles and settled on a high plateau in western Anatolia known as Hatti. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 8) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W</a>. §REF§  §REF§ (Stephens, Jr. 1979, 46) Stephens, Jr., W. Richard. 1979. “The Rise of the Hittite Empire: A Comparison of Theories on the Origin of the State.” Mid-American Review of Sociology 4 (1): 39-55. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2MD3WV2T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2MD3WV2T</a>. §REF§  The immigrants mingled with the indigenous people of Hatti and adopted many of their beliefs and customs. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 8) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Before the mid-1st millennium BCE, the central Anatolian region was divided into many city-states. §REF§ (Stephens, Jr. 1979, 41-42) Stephens, Jr., W. Richard. 1979. “The Rise of the Hittite Empire: A Comparison of Theories on the Origin of the State.” Mid-American Review of Sociology 4 (1): 39-55. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2MD3WV2T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2MD3WV2T</a>. §REF§  Gradually, however, the Hittites began to conquer the neighbouring cities, founding a strong state around 1650 BCE. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 8) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W</a>. §REF§  §REF§ (Stephens, Jr. 1979, 41049) Stephens, Jr., W. Richard. 1979. “The Rise of the Hittite Empire: A Comparison of Theories on the Origin of the State.” Mid-American Review of Sociology 4 (1): 39-55. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2MD3WV2T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2MD3WV2T</a>. §REF§  Labarna I (17th century BCE) was the first known Hittite king. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 34) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W</a>. §REF§ <br>The king was the supreme ruler and military commander, a chief judge and a priest in Hittite society. §REF§ (Bryce 2007, 11) Bryce, Trevor A. 2007. Hittite Warrior. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/38EMV897\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/38EMV897</a>. §REF§  He entrusted the management of major cities and provinces to officials who were often directly answerable to him, §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 16) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W</a>. §REF§  and could bestow important military positions on members of his own family. §REF§ (Bryce 2007, 8-9) Bryce, Trevor A. 2007. Hittite Warrior. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/38EMV897\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/38EMV897</a>. §REF§  Vassal rulers were obliged to pay tribute to the king and take an oath of allegiance. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 43) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W</a>. §REF§ ",
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            "description": "Towards the end of Hatti New Kingdom, the polity experienced both prosperity and territorial expansion as well as the irreversible decline of its military and political power which ultimately led to its collapse. By approx 1200 BCE the state was under continuous attack and invasions by the Sea Peoples, the Kaskians and, in particular, the Assyrians. The Assyrians conquered much of Hittite territory and posed a great threat to their trade routes. When the capital of Hattusa, where all power was centralised, was captured and destroyed by the Assyrians around 1180 BCE, the New Kingdom of Hatti collapsed entirely. The last king, Šuppiluliuma II, seemed to have disappeared from the record by 1178 BCE though he may have died in the sack of Hattusa. The end of the Hittite kingdom was part of the Bronze Age Collapse.§REF§Bryce, T. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§ §REF§Gurney, O.R. (1966). The Hittites. Penguin.§REF§ §REF§Robert Drews. 1994. The Coming of the Greeks: Indo-European Conquests in the Aegean and the Near East Princeton University Press.§REF§ §REF§Gurney, O.R. (1966). The Hittites. Penguin.§REF§",
            "note": null,
            "finalized": true,
            "created_date": null,
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            "is_disputed": null,
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            "expert_reviewed": null,
            "drb_reviewed": null,
            "crisis_case_id": "tr_hatti_new_k@end",
            "is_first_100": true,
            "name": "Bronze Age Collapse, Hatti",
            "decline": "A",
            "collapse": "A",
            "epidemic": "A",
            "downward_mobility": "IP",
            "extermination": "A",
            "uprising": "A",
            "revolution": "A",
            "successful_revolution": "None",
            "civil_war": "A",
            "century_plus": "A",
            "fragmentation": "A",
            "capital": "P",
            "conquest": "P",
            "assassination": "SU",
            "depose": "SU",
            "constitution": "IA",
            "labor": "IA",
            "unfree_labor": "IA",
            "suffrage": "IA",
            "public_goods": "IA",
            "religion": "IA",
            "polity": {
                "id": 164,
                "name": "TrHatNK",
                "start_year": -1400,
                "end_year": -1180,
                "long_name": "Hatti - New Kingdom",
                "new_name": "tr_hatti_new_k",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The period of the Hittite New Kingdom lasts from about 1400-1180 BCE although the dynasty that created it, originating from the city Kumbnani within the Kizzuwatna polity, came to power in the mid-fifteenth century BCE. The rulers of this dynasty were the creators of the Hittite empire, which during the reign of King Suppiluliuma I (1356-1319 BCE) and his successors achieved the greatest prosperity. In the period of its greatest splendor, the Hittite king controlled up to 400,000 squared kilometers of land including the areas of Northern Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine.<br>The central bureaucracy was relatively sophisticated: a Chief of the Scribes headed up the Hittite chancellery §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 66) §REF§  whilst a separate administrator, the hazannu, had responsibility for the city of Hattusa. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 16) §REF§  Keepers of the Royal Storehouses were also important officials. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 18) §REF§  District governors known as Lord of the Watchtower were appointed for the provinces §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 16) §REF§  whilst the conquest of Syria c1340 BCE lead to the position of viceroy being created for the important urban centre of Karkamis. §REF§ (Thuesen 2002, 45) §REF§  The power of the state was based on the army, which was great for the times - it had iron weapons, armor, and excellent war chariots.<br>During the reign of Muwattalli, Ramses II was in power in Egypt, and the war between two most powerful states in the Middle East area resulted in the first written international treaty known to us as \" Kadesh Treaty \". Although this treaty was originally written in the Akkadian language, copies in Hittite and Egyptian languages were made.  Around 1200 BCE, the Hittite state probably fell under the pressure of the Sea Peoples, although a few Hittite city-states in Northern Syria survived until 708 BC.",
                "shapefile_name": null,
                "private_comment": null,
                "created_date": null,
                "modified_date": null,
                "home_nga": {
                    "id": 11,
                    "name": "Konya Plain",
                    "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus",
                    "longitude": "32.521164000000",
                    "latitude": "37.877845000000",
                    "capital_city": "Konya",
                    "nga_code": "TR",
                    "fao_country": "Turkey",
                    "world_region": "Southwest Asia"
                },
                "home_seshat_region": {
                    "id": 43,
                    "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus",
                    "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan",
                    "mac_region": {
                        "id": 11,
                        "name": "Southwest Asia"
                    }
                },
                "private_comment_n": {
                    "id": 1,
                    "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS"
                }
            },
            "comment": null,
            "private_comment": {
                "id": 1,
                "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS"
            },
            "other_polity": {
                "id": 165,
                "name": "TrNHitt",
                "start_year": -1180,
                "end_year": -900,
                "long_name": "Neo-Hittite Kingdoms",
                "new_name": "tr_neo_hittite_k",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "After Hattusa was destroyed by fire ending the New Kingdom period of the Hittites §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 9) T Bryce. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§  elements of the Hittite civilization lingered in peripheral areas of the former kingdom §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 9) T Bryce. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§  which included the Konya Plain region. The primary region of the Syro-Hittite kingdoms was however in Syria. The small states lasted for almost 500 years and were culturally and politically prominent from c900 BCE until the last of them fell to the Assyrian king Sargon II between 717-708 BCE. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 9) T Bryce. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§  The cultural links between these kingdoms and the Late Bronze Age Hittite Empire can be seen in the iconography and architecture. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 47) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>In the 1180-900 BCE post-Empire period the region reorganized into city-states. §REF§ (Thuesen 2002, 43) I Thuesen. 2002. \"The Neo-Hittite City-States\" in Mogens, H H ed. A Comparative Study of Six City-state Cultures: An Investigation, Volume 27. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. §REF§  The earliest written records suggest there was no kind of federation, \"each was entirely independent from the others, each had its own autonomous ruler.\" §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 52) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§  The label 'Neo-Hittite' applies to 15 states spread through south-eastern Anatolia and northern Syria. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 2) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§  Those present in the area around or on the Konya Plain were the following: Pisidia; Pamphylia; Lycaonia; Tabal; Cilicia (Hilakku and Que). §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 32) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>Although there was some continuity with the preceding period major cultural changes occurred in the Neo-Hittite era. According to Bryce (2012) \"Hittite cuneiform disappeared entirely. There is not the slightest trace of it in any of the Iron Age successor-kingdoms of the Hittites. One might reasonably suppose that along with the disappearance of the written language, Nesite also disappeared as a spoken one.\"  §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 16) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§  Although we do not have any historical records associated with this epoch, historians have speculated that the society of this era used the Hieroglyphic Luwian language. §REF§ (Popko 1999, 93-111) M Popko. 1999. Ludy i języki starożytnej Anatolii. Wydawnictwo Akademickie Dialog. Warszawa. pp.93-111 §REF§   §REF§ (Van de Mieroop 2008, 207) M Van de Mieroop. 2008. Historia starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu ok. 3000-323 p.n.e. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Kraków. §REF§  I. Yakibovich has suggested that the core area of Luwian population was located in central Anatolia, in the region of the Konya Plain. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 17) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>Many Neo-Hittite rulers took the titles \"Great King\" and \"Hero\" and it is likely an administrative centre existed in the central town. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 80) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§  At the better known Neo-Hittite site of Carchemish, in western Anatolia, a central bureaucracy is known which had scribes, clerks and other officials §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 54) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ ; although \"Carchemish and probably Malatya apparently continued from their Late Bronze Age predecessors with little or no interruption\" §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 63) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§  which might not be the case for other lesser-known polities of the Neo-Hittite states.",
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                "modified_date": "2023-12-19T09:00:40.512130Z",
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                    "name": "Konya Plain",
                    "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus",
                    "longitude": "32.521164000000",
                    "latitude": "37.877845000000",
                    "capital_city": "Konya",
                    "nga_code": "TR",
                    "fao_country": "Turkey",
                    "world_region": "Southwest Asia"
                },
                "home_seshat_region": {
                    "id": 43,
                    "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus",
                    "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan",
                    "mac_region": {
                        "id": 11,
                        "name": "Southwest Asia"
                    }
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            "citations": [],
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        },
        {
            "id": 129,
            "year_from": -1200,
            "year_to": -1150,
            "description": "Unlike many other polities who weakened or ended during the Late Bronze Age collapse, the Phonecians emerged as a strong and organised civilisation. This is sometimes referred to as the Phonecian Rennaisance, during which time their trade and economy flourished. §REF§Scott, John C. 2018. \"The Phoenicians and the Formation of the Western World\" in Comparative Civilizations Review 78 (4).§REF§",
            "note": null,
            "finalized": true,
            "created_date": null,
            "modified_date": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": null,
            "is_uncertain": null,
            "expert_reviewed": null,
            "drb_reviewed": null,
            "crisis_case_id": "lb_phoenician_emp@late_bronze_collapse",
            "is_first_100": false,
            "name": "Late Bronze Age Collapse",
            "decline": "A",
            "collapse": "A",
            "epidemic": "A",
            "downward_mobility": "A",
            "extermination": "A",
            "uprising": "A",
            "revolution": "A",
            "successful_revolution": "None",
            "civil_war": "A",
            "century_plus": "A",
            "fragmentation": "A",
            "capital": "A",
            "conquest": "A",
            "assassination": "A",
            "depose": "A",
            "constitution": "A",
            "labor": "A",
            "unfree_labor": "A",
            "suffrage": "A",
            "public_goods": "A",
            "religion": "A",
            "polity": {
                "id": 104,
                "name": "LbAcPho",
                "start_year": -1200,
                "end_year": -332,
                "long_name": "Phoenician Empire",
                "new_name": "lb_phoenician_emp",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The term 'Phoenicia' refers to a group of allied cities - rather than a politically centralized state - located in the southern Levant, in present-day Lebanon and northern Israel. It is difficult to assign exact dates to this quasi-polity, §REF§ (Röllig 1983) Röllig, Wolfgang. 1983. “The Phoenician Language: Remarks on the Present State of Research.” In Atti Del I. Congresso Internazionale Di Studi Fenici E Punici: Roma, 5-10 Novembre 1979, 375-85. Rome: Istituto per la Civiltà Fenicia e Punica. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKX2FPFB\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKX2FPFB</a>. §REF§  but here we focus on the period between c. 1200 BCE and 332 BCE, when the Phoenician city of Tyre fell to Alexander the Great. §REF§ (Briant 2010, 9) Briant, Pierre. 2010. Alexander the Great and His Empire: A Short Introduction. Translated by Amélie Kuhrt. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2BWW9KRM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2BWW9KRM</a>. §REF§  The Phoenicians were skilled traders and seafarers. §REF§ (Kaufman 2014, 3-4) Kaufman, Bret. 2014. “Empire without a Voice: Phoenician Iron Metallurgy and Imperial Strategy at Carthage.” PhD Dissertation, Los Angeles, CA: UCLA. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6HWAI37J\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6HWAI37J</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The ruler of a Phoenician city was somewhere between human and divine. He was not a god, but was the highest priest with a privileged relationship to the city's patron deity. §REF§ (Bonnet 2004, 102) Bonnet, Corinne. 2004. I Fenici. Rome: Carocci. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CHKFPEHR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CHKFPEHR</a>. §REF§  However, his power was not unlimited: merchant families also wielded considerable influence in public affairs and, at least in Byblos, Sidon, and possibly Tyre, the king was assisted by a council of elders. In Tyre, between 605 and 561 BCE, the monarchy was replaced with a republic, in which the government was led by a series of judges known as <i>suffetes</i>, who ruled for only short terms. §REF§ (Etheredge 2011, 122) Etheredge, Laura. 2011. Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B8B3HGFK\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B8B3HGFK</a>. §REF§ <br>Reliable population figures for the Phoenician cities are lacking.",
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                "created_date": null,
                "modified_date": "2023-10-23T16:23:53.991090Z",
                "home_nga": {
                    "id": 10,
                    "name": "Galilee",
                    "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia",
                    "longitude": "35.303500000000",
                    "latitude": "32.699600000000",
                    "capital_city": "Nazareth",
                    "nga_code": "IL",
                    "fao_country": "Israel",
                    "world_region": "Southwest Asia"
                },
                "home_seshat_region": {
                    "id": 61,
                    "name": "Levant",
                    "subregions_list": "Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria",
                    "mac_region": {
                        "id": 11,
                        "name": "Southwest Asia"
                    }
                },
                "private_comment_n": {
                    "id": 1,
                    "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS"
                }
            },
            "comment": null,
            "private_comment": {
                "id": 1,
                "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS"
            },
            "other_polity": null,
            "citations": [],
            "curator": []
        },
        {
            "id": 140,
            "year_from": -1140,
            "year_to": -1030,
            "description": "During the period 1140-1030 there were several conflicts between the politically independant Phoenecian city states of Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Byblos which were favoured by the Egyptians. These cities were independantly ruled and fiercely competitive, and although they shared culture, religion and language, there is no evidence that they ever united together as one country. Population statistics are lacking.§REF§Lockard, Craig. A. 2008. Societies, Networks, and Transitions: Volume I: A Global History, Volume 2. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company§REF§",
            "note": null,
            "finalized": true,
            "created_date": null,
            "modified_date": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": null,
            "is_uncertain": null,
            "expert_reviewed": null,
            "drb_reviewed": null,
            "crisis_case_id": "lb_phoenician_emp@inter_city_conflicts",
            "is_first_100": false,
            "name": "Phoenecian Cities Conflicts",
            "decline": "SU",
            "collapse": "A",
            "epidemic": "SU",
            "downward_mobility": "A",
            "extermination": "A",
            "uprising": "A",
            "revolution": "A",
            "successful_revolution": "None",
            "civil_war": "P",
            "century_plus": "A",
            "fragmentation": "A",
            "capital": "A",
            "conquest": "A",
            "assassination": "A",
            "depose": "A",
            "constitution": "A",
            "labor": "A",
            "unfree_labor": "A",
            "suffrage": "A",
            "public_goods": "A",
            "religion": "A",
            "polity": {
                "id": 104,
                "name": "LbAcPho",
                "start_year": -1200,
                "end_year": -332,
                "long_name": "Phoenician Empire",
                "new_name": "lb_phoenician_emp",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The term 'Phoenicia' refers to a group of allied cities - rather than a politically centralized state - located in the southern Levant, in present-day Lebanon and northern Israel. It is difficult to assign exact dates to this quasi-polity, §REF§ (Röllig 1983) Röllig, Wolfgang. 1983. “The Phoenician Language: Remarks on the Present State of Research.” In Atti Del I. Congresso Internazionale Di Studi Fenici E Punici: Roma, 5-10 Novembre 1979, 375-85. Rome: Istituto per la Civiltà Fenicia e Punica. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKX2FPFB\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKX2FPFB</a>. §REF§  but here we focus on the period between c. 1200 BCE and 332 BCE, when the Phoenician city of Tyre fell to Alexander the Great. §REF§ (Briant 2010, 9) Briant, Pierre. 2010. Alexander the Great and His Empire: A Short Introduction. Translated by Amélie Kuhrt. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2BWW9KRM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2BWW9KRM</a>. §REF§  The Phoenicians were skilled traders and seafarers. §REF§ (Kaufman 2014, 3-4) Kaufman, Bret. 2014. “Empire without a Voice: Phoenician Iron Metallurgy and Imperial Strategy at Carthage.” PhD Dissertation, Los Angeles, CA: UCLA. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6HWAI37J\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6HWAI37J</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The ruler of a Phoenician city was somewhere between human and divine. He was not a god, but was the highest priest with a privileged relationship to the city's patron deity. §REF§ (Bonnet 2004, 102) Bonnet, Corinne. 2004. I Fenici. Rome: Carocci. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CHKFPEHR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CHKFPEHR</a>. §REF§  However, his power was not unlimited: merchant families also wielded considerable influence in public affairs and, at least in Byblos, Sidon, and possibly Tyre, the king was assisted by a council of elders. In Tyre, between 605 and 561 BCE, the monarchy was replaced with a republic, in which the government was led by a series of judges known as <i>suffetes</i>, who ruled for only short terms. §REF§ (Etheredge 2011, 122) Etheredge, Laura. 2011. Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B8B3HGFK\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B8B3HGFK</a>. §REF§ <br>Reliable population figures for the Phoenician cities are lacking.",
                "shapefile_name": null,
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                "modified_date": "2023-10-23T16:23:53.991090Z",
                "home_nga": {
                    "id": 10,
                    "name": "Galilee",
                    "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia",
                    "longitude": "35.303500000000",
                    "latitude": "32.699600000000",
                    "capital_city": "Nazareth",
                    "nga_code": "IL",
                    "fao_country": "Israel",
                    "world_region": "Southwest Asia"
                },
                "home_seshat_region": {
                    "id": 61,
                    "name": "Levant",
                    "subregions_list": "Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria",
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                    "id": 1,
                    "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS"
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            "comment": null,
            "private_comment": {
                "id": 1,
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            "other_polity": null,
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        },
        {
            "id": 77,
            "year_from": -1075,
            "year_to": -1045,
            "description": "The Shang was conquered by one of the tribes of its state: the Zhou from Western China. Wu Geng, the son of the Shang king, Di Xin (posthumously named Zhou), fled to the Zhou state to ask King Wu for help against his tyrannical and corrupt father.  King Wu defeated Di Xin at the Battle of Muye around 1046 BCE, and Di Xin committed suicide by setting fire to himself in his palace. King Wu established the Zhou dynasty. Zhou allowed Wu Geng to rule the Shang as a vassal kingdom, but sent an army and guards to ensure he didn't rebel. However, upon King Wu's death, Wu Geng and the remaining Shang dynasty joined The Rebellion of the Three Guards (1042–1039 BCE). The rebellion failed, Wu Geng was killed in battle, and the Shang pricedom ended.§REF§Sawyer, R. 2011. Ancient Chinese Warfare. Basic Books.§REF§ §REF§Robert Eno. 2009. 'Shang State Religion' in Early Chinese Religion. Part One: Shang through Han (1250 BC-220 AD), edited by John Lagerwey and Mark Kalinowski. Leiden: Brill.§REF§ §REF§Li, Feng (2006). Axel Menges (ed.). Landscape and Power in Early China: The Crisis and Fall of the Western Zhou 1045-771 BC.§REF§ §REF§Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1999). \"Western Zhou History\". In Michael Loewe; Edward L. Shaughnessy (eds.). The Cambridge History of ancient China - From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 292-351§REF§ §REF§Hucker, Charles O. (1978), China to 1850: A short history, Stanford University Press.§REF§ §REF§Li, Feng (2014) [1st pub. 2013]. Early China: A Social and Cultural History (Reprint with corrections ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§",
            "note": null,
            "finalized": true,
            "created_date": null,
            "modified_date": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": null,
            "is_uncertain": null,
            "expert_reviewed": null,
            "drb_reviewed": null,
            "crisis_case_id": "cn_late_shang_dyn@end",
            "is_first_100": true,
            "name": "Decline of Shang - foundation of Zhou Dynasty",
            "decline": "A",
            "collapse": "A",
            "epidemic": "A",
            "downward_mobility": "A",
            "extermination": "A",
            "uprising": "P",
            "revolution": "A",
            "successful_revolution": "None",
            "civil_war": "A",
            "century_plus": "A",
            "fragmentation": "A",
            "capital": "A",
            "conquest": "P",
            "assassination": "A",
            "depose": "SU",
            "constitution": "A",
            "labor": "A",
            "unfree_labor": "A",
            "suffrage": "A",
            "public_goods": "A",
            "religion": "A",
            "polity": {
                "id": 243,
                "name": "CnShang",
                "start_year": -1250,
                "end_year": -1045,
                "long_name": "Late Shang",
                "new_name": "cn_late_shang_dyn",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The Late Shang Dynasty (1250-1045 BCE) was an extension of the Erligang culture based in Yinxu, near modern Anyang. The Late Shang were the last 12 kings of the dynasty, beginning with Pan Geng. Unlike in Erligang settlements, pottery, oracle bones and other artefacts showing a fully formed writing system have been found at Late Shang sites. This system included 'pictograms, ideograms, and phonograms'. §REF§ (San 2014, 19) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§  The oldest written records uncovered from Shang contexts date back to 1200 BCE. §REF§ (San 2014, 19) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ <br>The civilization at Yinxu is considered to represent the golden age of the Shang Dynasty §REF§ (San 2014, 17) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§  and 11 major royal tombs have been uncovered there by archaeologists. §REF§ (San 2014, 17) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§  Pottery and bronze and jade work flourished in the Late Shang period. §REF§ (San 2014, 20) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§  The Late Shang also had a developed calendar system with 30 days in a month and 12 months (360 days) in a year. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica 2017) “Shang Dynasty.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shang-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shang-dynasty</a> Accessed May 29, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8GNFD4WH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8GNFD4WH</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Late Shang were based on the North China Plain. The dynasty's territory stretched north to modern Shandong, south to Hebei, and west to Henan. §REF§ (San 2014, 16) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§  The Shang government was a feudal system in which the king and a class of military nobility ruled over the masses, who were mainly farmers. §REF§ (San 2014, 16, 21) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§  Shang kings also served as high priests. §REF§ (San 2014, 16) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>) §REF§  The Late Shang were in constant conflict with surrounding settlements and with civilizations from the steppe. §REF§ (San 2014, 21) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ <br>The population of the Late Shang Dynasty was around 5 million in 1045 BCE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 170-72) McEvedy, Colin, and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6U4QZXCG/q/atlas%20of%20world%20population\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6U4QZXCG/q/atlas%20of%20world%20population</a>. §REF§  The population of the Yinxu settlement in Anyang is unknown.",
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                "home_nga": {
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            "other_polity": {
                "id": 244,
                "name": "CnWZhou",
                "start_year": -1122,
                "end_year": -771,
                "long_name": "Western Zhou",
                "new_name": "cn_western_zhou_dyn",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The Western Zhou Dynasty was the first Chinese state to claim the Mandate of Heaven, the divinely bestowed right to rule. Zhou was a tributary state to Shang until the Zhou king Zhou Wu Wang defeated the last king of Shang in the 1046 BCE Battle of Muye. §REF§ (San 2014, 30) San, Tan Koon. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History.</i> Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§  Zhou power was consolidated after the Duke of Zhou's defeat of the Rebellion of the Three Guards, led by Shang loyalists and separatist eastern nobles. §REF§ (San 2014, 31) San, Tan Koon. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History.</i> Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§  In defeating the rebellion, the Zhou state was able to add a large area of land in eastern China to its territory. §REF§ (San 2014, 30) San, Tan Koon. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History.</i> Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ <br>The Western Zhou established their capital at Haojing, and the Duke of Zhou later established Chengzhou as a second capital. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, Ulrich. 2000. “Zhou History.” <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/zhou.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/zhou.html</a> Accessed May 31, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V8ABGJAF\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V8ABGJAF</a>. §REF§  In 957 BCE, the Zhou controlled territory covering an estimated 850,000 square kilometres based in the central plains of China.<br>The period was peaceful for the first 75 years of Zhou rule. §REF§ (Shaughnessy 1999, 310-11) Shaughnessy, Edward L. 1999. “Western Zhou History.” In <i>The Cambridge History of Ancient China</i> edited by Michael Loewe and Edward L. Shaughnessy. Cambridge: CUP. 292-351. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945</a>. §REF§  However, the decentralization of Zhou power into fiefdoms encouraged turmoil between states, popular unrest, and vassal rebellions. §REF§ (Shaughnessy 1999, 310-11) Shaughnessy, Edward L. 1999. “Western Zhou History.” In <i>The Cambridge History of Ancient China</i> edited by Michael Loewe and Edward L. Shaughnessy. Cambridge: CUP. 292-351. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945</a>. §REF§  The Marquess of Shen sacked Haojing and killed the 12th Zhou king over a succession dispute in 771 BCE. §REF§ (San 2014, 34) San, Tan Koon. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History.</i> Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§  The crown prince subsequently moved the capital to Luoyang and founded the Eastern Zhou dynasty.<br>The Western Zhou are noted for their introduction of the Mandate of Heaven, their kinship-based feudal system and their use of lineage law. §REF§ (Zhao 2015, 79) Zhao, Dingxin. 2015. <i>The Confucian-Legalist State: A New Theory of Chinese History.</i> Oxford: OUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5</a>. §REF§  The state's kinship-based feudal system encouraged the spread of Zhou writing, culture and identity. §REF§ (Zhao 2015, 80) Zhao, Dingxin. 2015. <i>The Confucian-Legalist State: A New Theory of Chinese History.</i> Oxford: OUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5</a>. §REF§  Some scholars have seen Zhou lineage law, with its emphasis on 'lineage rituals, familial ethics, and beneficent rule', as an intellectual precursor of Confucianism. §REF§ (Zhao 2015, 80) Zhao, Dingxin. 2015. <i>The Confucian-Legalist State: A New Theory of Chinese History.</i> Oxford: OUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5</a>. §REF§  The hierarchies, division of labour and meritocratic practices that emerged under the Western Zhou also helped lay the foundations for the introduction of bureaucracy. §REF§ (Zhao 2015, 80) Zhao, Dingxin. 2015. <i>The Confucian-Legalist State: A New Theory of Chinese History.</i> Oxford: OUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Western Zhou state was a proto-feudal monarchy in which feudal lords were supported by an extended family network. §REF§ (San 2014, 29) San, Tan Koon. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History.</i> Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§  The first king of Zhou introduced the <i>fengjian</i> system, which made military leaders and members of the royal family into regional lords ruling over parcels of land. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 9-12) Roberts. John A.G. 1999. <i>A Concise History of China.</i> Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945</a>. §REF§  These fiefdoms were then divided into smaller units and distributed to members of the local rulers' families. §REF§ (San 2014, 29) San, Tan Koon. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History.</i> Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ <br>Individual fiefdoms had their own taxes, legal systems, and currencies but paid dues to the king and provided soldiers in times of need. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 9-12) Roberts. John A.G. 1999. <i>A Concise History of China.</i> Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945</a>. §REF§  This system eventually led to decentralization and the weakening of Zhou rule. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 9-12) Roberts. John A.G. 1999. <i>A Concise History of China.</i> Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945</a>. §REF§ <br>It is difficult to obtain population figures for the Western Zhou period. C. K. Maisels has given an estimate of 13.5 million people in 800 BCE. §REF§ (Maisels 2001, 260) Maisels, C. K. 2001. <i>Early Civilizations of the Old World: The Formative Histories of Egypt, the Levant, Mesopotamia, India, and China</i>. Routledge: London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P9IXAB56\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P9IXAB56</a>. §REF§",
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                "home_nga": {
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                    "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley",
                    "subregion": "North China",
                    "longitude": "112.517587000000",
                    "latitude": "34.701825000000",
                    "capital_city": "Luoyang",
                    "nga_code": "CN",
                    "fao_country": "China",
                    "world_region": "East Asia"
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                "home_seshat_region": {
                    "id": 58,
                    "name": "North China",
                    "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang",
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                        "name": "East Asia"
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        {
            "id": 62,
            "year_from": -1070,
            "year_to": -1070,
            "description": "Collapse of New Kingdom centralized state, fragmentation into smaller territories, and there were \"significant changes in Egypt's political organization\" (Taylor 2000: 330). Civil war \"fomented by Panehsy, the viceroy of Kush\" but the period was mostly stable (Taylor 2000: 330). Possible smallpox: Ramesses V's mummy was found to have pustules typical of smallpox or a similar disease (Habicht et al. 2021), but this evidence seems too isolated to code lethal epidemic present. According to Taylor (2000: 331), the transition from the 20th Dynasty (last of the New Kingdom) to the 21st \"occurred smoothly\": perhaps no substantial elite downward mobility. No wholesale external conquest: pharaohs of Libyan origin in the north, but they did not take power through military means (Taylor 2000: 334-5). §REF§Taylor 2000: Taylor, John. 2000. The Third Intermediate Period (c.1069-664 BC).‚Äù In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 330-68. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§",
            "note": null,
            "finalized": true,
            "created_date": null,
            "modified_date": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": null,
            "is_uncertain": null,
            "expert_reviewed": null,
            "drb_reviewed": null,
            "crisis_case_id": "eg_new_k_2@end",
            "is_first_100": true,
            "name": "Collapse of New Kingdom state",
            "decline": "SU",
            "collapse": "A",
            "epidemic": "IP",
            "downward_mobility": "A",
            "extermination": "A",
            "uprising": "P",
            "revolution": "A",
            "successful_revolution": "None",
            "civil_war": "P",
            "century_plus": "A",
            "fragmentation": "P",
            "capital": "A",
            "conquest": "A",
            "assassination": "A",
            "depose": "SU",
            "constitution": "IP",
            "labor": "A",
            "unfree_labor": "A",
            "suffrage": "A",
            "public_goods": "A",
            "religion": "A",
            "polity": {
                "id": 199,
                "name": "EgNKRam",
                "start_year": -1293,
                "end_year": -1070,
                "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period",
                "new_name": "eg_new_k_2",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The Ramesside era of the New Kingdom (1293-1070 BCE) is known as the last of the great native Egyptian states, when Egypt lost its foreign territories and the system of centralized government broke down once again. In contrast to the Thutmosid Period, which was dominated by an administration located in Upper Egypt, the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties (known as the Rammeside period) were based in the Nile Delta region of Lower Egypt - first at Memphis, then at a new grand capital at Per-Ramesses.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The New Kingdom had a centralized administration that split the country under two viziers, who oversaw the Northern Tchety and Southern Tchety. Within these large units were nomarchs of nomes, village chiefs and local constables. §REF§ (Brier and Hobbs 2008, 72) Bob Brier and A. Hoyt Hobbs. 2008. <i>Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians</i>. 2nd ed. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. §REF§  The important local officials were directly responsible to the bureau of the vizier, and they had to travel back and forth between the vizier's seat and their local posts in the course of their duties. §REF§ (van den Boorn 1988, 115-16) G. P. F. van den Boorn. 1988. <i>The Duties of the Vizier: Civil Administration in the Early New Kingdom</i>. London: Kegan Paul International. §REF§  The draw of the centre both indicates the degree of power of the centralized administration and shows that the regions had the necessary administrative complexity to run themselves without the presence of their local ruler. §REF§ (van den Boorn 1988, 115-16) G. P. F. van den Boorn. 1988. <i>The Duties of the Vizier: Civil Administration in the Early New Kingdom</i>. London: Kegan Paul International. §REF§ <br>Governmental administration during the later New Kingdom Dynasties was 'characterized by the growing strength of hereditary office', and the position of provincial nobles grew more secure. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 192, 229) David O'Connor. 1983. 'New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period, 1552-664 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  During this period, the god Amun, the central deity of the priests at Thebes, became merged with the sun-god Ra and as Amun-Ra was worshipped throughout Egypt, including at Memphis. Rites connected with this 'king of gods' served to legitimize the rule of the Egyptian king on earth, who was believed to be the 'bodily son of Amun'. §REF§ (Van Dijk 2000, 298-99) Jacobus Van Dijk. 2003. 'The Amarna Period and the Later New Kingdom', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 265-307. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Doxey 2001, 69-70) D. M. Doxey. 2001. 'Priesthood', in <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 3</i>, edited by D. B. Redford, 69-70. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Government grants were bestowed on temples in return for 'formal blessings' for state activities. §REF§ (Abu Bakr 1981, 102) A. Abu Bakr. 1981. 'Pharaonic Egypt', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa</i>, edited by G. Mokhtar, 84-111. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§  However, the pharaoh's power to appoint the high priest was 'nominal', especially from the time of Ramesses III onwards, §REF§ (Van Dijk 2000, 298-300) Jacobus Van Dijk. 2003. 'The Amarna Period and the Later New Kingdom', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 265-307. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  and the priests of Karnak in Upper Egypt became powerful hereditary rulers who acted independently of the administration at Per-Ramesses in the delta. §REF§ (Hassan 1993, 568) Fekri Hassan. 1993. 'Town and Village in Ancient Egypt: Ecology, Society and Urbanization', in <i>The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns</i>, edited by Thurstan Shaw, Paul Sinclair, Bassey Andah and Alex Okpoko, 551-69. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br>The city of Per-Ramesses, established around 1270 CE, had an immense population of about 250,000, §REF§ (Moreno García 2014, 11) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2014. 'Invaders or Just Herders? Libyans in Egypt in the Third and Second Millennia BCE'. <i>World Archaeology</i> 46: 610-23. §REF§  while the kingdom supported a peak total population of more than three million. §REF§ (Eyre 2010, 303) Christopher Eyre. 2010. 'The Economy: Pharaonic', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 291-308. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ ",
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                "home_nga": {
                    "id": 5,
                    "name": "Upper Egypt",
                    "subregion": "Northeastern Africa",
                    "longitude": "32.714706000000",
                    "latitude": "25.725715000000",
                    "capital_city": "Luxor",
                    "nga_code": "EG",
                    "fao_country": "Egypt",
                    "world_region": "Africa"
                },
                "home_seshat_region": {
                    "id": 4,
                    "name": "Northeast Africa",
                    "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)",
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            "comment": null,
            "private_comment": {
                "id": 1,
                "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS"
            },
            "other_polity": {
                "id": 200,
                "name": "EgThebL",
                "start_year": -1069,
                "end_year": -747,
                "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Libyan Period",
                "new_name": "eg_thebes_libyan",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The Theban-Libyan Period in Egypt (Twenty-first, Twenty-second and Twenty-third Dynasties, 1069-747 BCE) §REF§ (Baines 2017) John Baines. January 2017. Seshat workshop. Oxford. §REF§  represents another time of decentralization in Egypt and, together with the subsequent Kushite period, makes up the Third Intermediate Period. §REF§ (Pagliari 2012, 183) Giulia Pagliari. 2012. 'Function and Significance of Ancient Egyptian Royal Palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite Period: A Lexicographical Study and Its Possible Connection with the Archaeological Evidence'. PhD thesis, University of Birmingham. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The governments at Memphis and Thebes followed the traditional 'intermediate period' pattern of rulers (pharaoh at Memphis, high priest at Thebes) who ran a bureaucratic system managed by a vizier and overseers of departments. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 337) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  However, the vizier and overseers of the treasury and granaries were unable to project their influence over the regions §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 337) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  and Egypt in this period is best characterised as 'a federation of semi-autonomous rulers, nominally subject (and often related) to an overlord-king'. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 338) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>The Egyptian pharaohs of the Twenty-first Dynasty (1077-943 BCE), based at Memphis near the Nile Delta, §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 327) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  served only as nominal heads of state for the whole of Egypt; §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 270) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  a formal agreement ceded control of Middle and Upper Egypt to priest-rulers at Thebes. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 232) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 270) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  The priests, who doubled as military commanders, derived their right to rule from the oracles of the 'Theban triad' of gods, Amun, Mut and Khons. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 327-28) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>The Twenty-first Dynasty pharaohs, perhaps in an effort to provide greater legitimacy for their rule over Upper Egypt, turned Tanis in the delta into a 'holy city', building royal tombs within temples built for the Theban triad. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 327) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  The most powerful pharaoh of this period, however, was the first Libyan ruler and founder of the Twenty-second Dynasty, Shoshenq I (r. 945-924 BCE). He embarked on an 'ambitious royal building programme' and attempted to regain control of the entirety of Egypt, curtail Thebes' independence, and expand into the Levant. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 329) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  The high point did not last long. The perennial problem of Upper Egyptian independence eventually led to the formal division of the state, an imaginative if drastic solution that created a parallel Twenty-third Dynasty based in Leontopolis, or perhaps Herakleopolis. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 233) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The new dynasty was enjoined to reassert control of the south, allowing the Twenty-second Dynasty rulers to concentrate on Lower Egypt. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 233) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  This did not work: by the time of Shoshenq III (r. 827-773 CE), the Twenty-second Dynasty pharaohs could barely even control the north: 'numerous local rulers - particularly in the Delta - became virtually autonomous and several declared themselves kings'. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 330) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>Unfortunately, due to scant evidence, there are no reliable population estimates for this time.",
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            "description": "Dynastic and elite conflicts between the families of David and Saul and later their descendants. After the king of Israel, Saul's death in battle his heir, Ishbaal reigns for only two years before he is assasinated. David, king of Judah, also becomes king of Israel, and makes Jerusalem the national capital in 1006. Israel then rebels against David who is forced into exile, and his son, Absalom (who is said to have obtained the throne in a disreputable manner instead of his elder brother, Adonijah), is appointed king. David later counterattacks, Absalom is killed, and David becomes king again, though he has to deal with rebellions for the remainder of his reign.§REF§Isser, S. J. 2003. The Sword of Goliath: David in Heroic Literature. BRILL.§REF§",
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            "crisis_case_id": "il_yisrael@cw",
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            "name": "Civil War in Israel and Judah",
            "decline": "A",
            "collapse": "A",
            "epidemic": "A",
            "downward_mobility": "A",
            "extermination": "A",
            "uprising": "P",
            "revolution": "A",
            "successful_revolution": "None",
            "civil_war": "P",
            "century_plus": "A",
            "fragmentation": "A",
            "capital": "A",
            "conquest": "A",
            "assassination": "P",
            "depose": "P",
            "constitution": "A",
            "labor": "A",
            "unfree_labor": "A",
            "suffrage": "A",
            "public_goods": "A",
            "religion": "A",
            "polity": {
                "id": 105,
                "name": "IlYisrl",
                "start_year": -1030,
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                "long_name": "Yisrael",
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                "general_description": "_Short description_<br>The ancient kingdom of Israel 1030-722 CE was a monarchy established by Israelite people that was eventually conquered by the Assyrian Empire. Initially a monarchic union with Judah, around 930 BCE the Northern Kingdom (Israel) gained autonomy. In the 9th century Israel entered an anti-Assyria coalition but from Jehu (841 BCE) paid them tribute and thereafter were frequently a vassal of the Mesopotamian empire. After a revolt against Assyria in 727 CE the Assyrians ended the polity sending many of its inhabitants into exile.<br>The century authorities ruled through administrative centers and fortresses sites that had \"public buildings and ... large open spaces.\" §REF§ (Finkelstein 2013, 104)Israel Finkelstein. 2013. The Forgotten Kingdom: The Archaeology and History of Northern Israel. Society of Biblical Literature. Atlanta, GA. Available online <a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/pubs/9781589839106_OA.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">here</a>. §REF§  Local administration may have been through tribal elders who may have been responsible for tax collection. Our image of a centralized monarchy (for some of or the whole of the period) might be tempered by the ideas of Pfoh (2008) who has argued Israel was actually a \"patronage kingdom\" in which a monarchy did not control a truly unitary state. Nevertheless, Israel possessed a standing army with a strong chariot corps, and used weapons of iron and bronze. Fortifications were many and imposing, and the Palace of Omri was one of the grandest in the Ancient Near East.<br>At its height, Israel imposed tribute on many of the surrounding kingdoms, not only Judah but Moab, Edom, and perhaps others as well. The Israelite population primarily lived in cities and towns in the hills, with fortified cities protecting the frontiers on the plains and dominating major trade routes through the region. Trade linked Israel with its northern neighbor Phoenicia, particularly through the port of Dor. At the height of its power, Israel was also a significant military force, contributing the largest contingent to the regional coalition that turned back Assyria's first attempt to conquer the Levant.<br>At least some of the population was literate even before the 10th Century BCE, though the prevalence of literacy is disputed. While the majority of the populace lived in small towns and villages, a significant fraction lived in walled cities such as the capital, Samaria. Most of the economy was in agriculture and pastoral production; staples for export included grain, wine, and oil. In the eighth century BCE the population likely exceeded well over a quarter of a million people, a vast increase on the less than 100,000 people estimated for the earliest times.<br><br/><br>_Oren's long description_<br>How the Kingdom of Israel began is a matter of dispute. The Bible depicts it as originally being the greater part of the old Israelite tribal confederation, and then a part of the United Monarchy under Saul, David, and Solomon (c. 1030 BCE)—before seceding during the rule of Rehaboam, and forming its own state. This narrative is more or less accepted by some archaeologists such as Mazar, while others such as Finkelstein assert that Israel actually emerged first from a process of gradual state formation, with the southern kingdom of Judah emerging later. §REF§ Cf. Finkelstein/Mazar (2007). §REF§ <br>Regardless, the two kingdoms always had close interactions, and the northern kingdom of Israel was almost always the dominant one. At its height, Israel imposed tribute on many of the surrounding kingdoms, not only Judah but Moab, Edom, and perhaps others as well. The Israelite population primarily lived in cities and towns in the hills, with fortified cities protecting the frontiers on the plains and dominating major trade routes through the region. Trade linked Israel with its northern neighbor Phoenicia, particularly through the port of Dor. At the height of its power, Israel was also a significant military force, contributing the largest contingent to the regional coalition that turned back Assyria's first attempt to conquer the Levant. Israel featured a standing army with a strong chariot corps, with weapons of iron and bronze. Fortifications were many and imposing, and the Palace of Omri was one of the grandest in the Ancient Near East.<br>However, starting with the assassination of the Omrid king Jehoram by Jehu (c. 841 BCE), Israel's fortunes waned; and it spent the rest of its existence as the tributary of either Aram or Assyria, depending on which of the two empires were ascendent. Even when the economy of Israel flourished during particular periods of the next century (as attested to by the greater incidence of luxury goods in archaeological finds), Israel was still subject to the depredations of foreign powers, being invaded several times. Ultimately, following an ill-fated rebellion against Assyria, the polity of Israel was dissolved (c. 722 BCE), its people exiled, and the land turned into an Assyrian province.<br>Israelite politics were marked with instability. In contrast to the kingdom of Judah, which featured a single ruling dynasty that traced its beginnings to David, Israelite kings frequently met violent ends. These would typically be at the hands of rebellious military commanders who would seize the throne, though such rebels ran the risk of being deposed themselves in short order. Zimri, one rebel captain, would rule for only a single week before losing the support of the army to rival captain Omri, founder of the Omrid Dynasty.<br>At least some of the population was literate even before the 10th Century BCE, though the prevalence of literacy is disputed. While the majority of the populace lived in small towns and villages, a significant fraction lived in walled cities such as the capital, Samaria. Most of the economy was in agriculture and pastoral production; staples for export included grain, wine, and oil.<br>A word of caution is in order about coding methodology. Much of the evidence we have about this polity comes from archaeological finds. However, the brute fact of an archaeological artifact is often used as the basis for considerable interpretation and conjecture. Methods have been improving over time, but still some archaeologists tend to leap far ahead of what the evidence will support. Additionally, the meaning of many finds is hotly disputed by archaeologists, each faction insisting for its point of view.<br>Worse, scholars of this particular polity often operate with ideological motives - either to prove the essential historicity of the Bible, or to disprove it—which can distort their claims. Israel Finkelstein, for example, once claimed that King David never existed, before having to revise his view after the discovery of the Tel Dan Stela. §REF§ Cf. Finkelstein/Mazar (2007). §REF§  (He now <a class=\"external text\" href=\"http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/print/2010/12/david-and-solomon/draper-text\" rel=\"nofollow\">believes</a>, as <i>National Geographic</i> puts it, that David was \"a raggedy upstart akin to Pancho Villa.\") His \"Low Chronology\" seems to have been motivated by the attempt to disprove the early existence of the United Monarchy, and the weight of the evidence now contradicts the chronology (while still inconclusive on the matter of the United Monarchy). §REF§ Mazar (2005) §REF§  In general, it seems that many archaeologists treat the absence of evidence as evidence of absence—risky to do, considering that new finds are unearthed practically every month.<br>In short, every data point that is backed up with archaeology must be considered provisional, and new discoveries can totally upend our picture of what happened. As can new interpretations that correct erroneous early interpretations, a <a class=\"external text\" href=\"http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst140/MotelOfMysteries.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">constant danger</a> with motivated archaeologists.",
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